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ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON 
STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING. 



i^XXXXZZXXZZXZXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXS* 
K Published by M 

| The Chemical Publishing Co. g 

h Easton, Penna. m 

Publishers of Scientific Books 
g Engineering Chemistry Portland Cement 

S Agricultural Chemistry Qualitative Analysis 

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i 



Elementary Treatise 



on 



Stock Feeds and Feeding 

By 
JAMES EDWARD HALLIGAN 

CHEMIST IN CHARGE, LOUISIANA STATE EXPERIMENT STATION 



EASTON, PA. 

THE CHEMICAL PUBLISHING CO. 

1911 



LONDON, ENGLAND: 
WILLIAMS & NORGATE 

14 HENRIETTA STREET, COVENT GARDEN, W. C. 

I 



qS^ 



Copyright, 191 i, by Edward Hart. 









©CI.A295634 









A. 



PREFACE. 

This book has been written to furnish the readers with a 
knowledge of stock feeds, the principles of feeding and the care 
of farm animals. It is so arranged that it may be used as a 
text-book, or for farmers, or for those interested in commercial 
feeds. 

Many of the American feeders waste a great deal of money 
through unwise selection of feeds ; many do not properly supply 
the needs of their live stock; and many could improve their 
systems of feeding. This little book should acquaint the readers 
with suggestions along these lines, serve to solve many problems 
which confront the farmer and perhaps be a means of increas- 
ing his profits. The subject matter has been written in as simple 
and practical a way as possible so as to be within reach of all 
interested in the subject. 

It is to be hoped that this little volume will fill a useful place 
in the libraries of farmers and students of animal feeding. 

Acknowledgments. 

The writer is indebted to Dr. W. H. Dalrymple, Department 
of Veterinary Science and to Prof. E. L. Jordan, Department 
of Animal Husbandry, of the Louisiana State University, for 
their many valuable suggestions. Prof. G. L. Tiebout, of the 
Louisiana State University very kindly helped in printing some 
of the photographs. 

The illustrations have been secured from the Louisiana Ex- 
periment Station and credit is given in the text for illustrations 
secured from other sources. 

Baton Rouge, La. 

February 15, 191 1. J. E. Halligan. 



INTRODUCTION. 

According to the Secretary of the United States Department 
of Agriculture, in the Yearbook of 1908: "The farmer who 
has averaged hardly twenty cents a pound for the butter that 
he has sold, between three and four cents a quart for his milk, 
and about one and a half cents for each egg, and even to the 
consumer who has paid prices much above these, it is a striking 
fact that the value of the farm products of the dairy cow are 
getting closer and closer to $800,000,000. Poultry and eggs 
produced on the farms of the United States are worth as much 
as the cotton crop, seed included, or the hay crop or the wheat 
crop." 

Armsby says: "It is estimated by competent authority that 
over 45 per cent, of the food consumption of the better classes in 
the United States consists of animal products. Taking into 
account the relatively higher prices of these materials it seems 
safe to estimate that fully half the amount spent for food by the 
average well-to-do family goes for the purchase of meat, eggs 
and dairy products." 

The following table gives statistics on farm animals in the 
United States. 1 



Kind of stock 


Number on farms 

in the United States 

January i, 1909 


Average price 

per head 
January 1, 1909 


Farm Value 
January 1, 1909 




20,640,000 
4,053,000 
21,720,000 
49.379.000 
56,084,000 
54,147,000 


1 95.64 

107.84 

32.36 

17-49 

3-43 

6.55 


$1,974,052,000 
437,082,000 
702,945,000 
863,754,000 
192,632,000 
354,794,000 




Milch cows 

Other cattle. .... 







These figures impress us with the vast expenditures and out- 
lay of money in animals and animal products in the United States. 

It is interesting to note that the animal manufactures foods 
such as fodders, hays, straws, grains, and wastes, many of which 
are not fit food for man, into products which are used for human 
consumption. 

1 1908 Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



INTRODUCTION V 

It is also important on account of these facts that we learn 
the principles of feeds and feeding in order to more intelligent- 
ly increase production with the least expenditure of time, labor 
and money. 

The time has come when only those who understand feeding 
are in a position to realize the maximum profits from live-stock. 
The population of this country is rapidly increasing so that the 
human race is consuming more and more of the grain every 
year. The feeder of the future will perhaps find grain un- 
profitable for feeding live-stock and he will be forced to utilize 
the coarser foods, the by-products and the wastes. In order to 
do this profitably, the principles of feeds and feeding must be 
understood. 



Contents. 



Preface 

Introduction. 
Section I. 



Section II. 



Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 
Sect 



Relation of Plant to Animal Life and Chemical 

Elements Needed by Plants i 

Composition of the Dry Matter of Plants and 

Animals 6 

Water and Dry Matter in Plants and Animals 9 

Ash in Plants 13 

Ash in Animals 18 

Protein in Plants and Animals 22 

Nitrogen Free Compounds - 26 

Composition of Farm Animals 31 

Physiology of Digestion - 36 

The Circulation of Digested Food 45 

Conditions Governing Digestibility .51 

The Nutrients and Their Functions 56 

Feed Stuffs as a Source of Energy 60 

Natural Stock Feeds 65 

Commercial Feeds 74 

Commercial Feeds, Continued 83 

Classes of Commercial Feeds 90 

Classes of Commercial Feeds, Continued 9S 

Feed Stuff Laws and Feed Adulterants 105 

A Few Remarks about Feed Stuffs 113 

Composition and Digestible Nutrients of Feed Stuffs 

and the Nutritive Ratio 121 

Feeding Standards 136 

How to Balance a Ration and Terms of a Nutritive 

Ratio 142 

Amounts of Roughage and Concentrates to Feed- • • 147 
How to Improve and Reduce the Cost of Rations-. 152 
Table of Amounts of Dry Matter and Digestible 

Nutrients in Feed Stuffs. 157 

Standards for Milch Cows • ; 73 

Computation of Rations According to Energy Values 179 

Feed and Care of Dairy Cows 1 88 

Feed and Care of Fattening Cattle 207 

Feed and Care of Horses 215 

Feed and Care of Sheep • • • 225 

Feed and Care of Swine 23 s 

Feed and Care of Young Farm Animals 246 

Feed and Care of Poultry 255 

Standards and Rations for Poultry 261 

The Importance of Raising Live-Stock and the 

Fertilizing Constituents in Feeds 269 

Cropping Systems for Stock Farms. The State 

Agricultural Experiment Stations 278 



III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 



Section XXII. 
Section XXIII. 

Section XXIV. 
Section XXV. 
Section XXVI. 




Section XXXVIII 



SECTION I. 

RELATION OF PLANT TO ANIMAL LIFE AND CHEMICAL 
ELEMENTS NEEDED BY PLANTS. 

How Plants Feed. — Every seed is made up of a germ (em- 
bryo plant) surrounded by stored up food. When a seed is 
dropped into the warm soil it germinates and feeds on this stored 
up food material until it has put forth a root, stem and leaves. 
It is now able to gather its food from the air, water and soil. 
On the roots of plants are minute root hairs, composed of 
single cells, which absorb food materials from the soil water, 
by means of osmosis or diffusion. The leaves, on the under 
sides, have minute openings which permit the breathing of air 
which contains carbonic acid gas. The carbon is used in build- 
ing up the plant and the excess of oxygen is given back to the 
atmosphere. This process' requires the presence of light as does 
chlorophyll (green coloring matter of plants). Plants will grow 
without light as long as the food supply in the seed lasts, but 
they will be white and will not produce seed. By the aid of 
sunlight the materials gathered by the root hairs and leaves are 
manufactured into compounds and retained by the plants. 

The Food of the Plant. — The plant keeps growing until it 
produces seed. It may continue its growth for years as is the 
case with trees. In this continual growing process we cannot 
see the plant feeding but we know its nourishment is obtained 
from the soil, water and air. The food of the plant, then, con- 
sists of the mineral substances, water and gases taken from the 
soil and air. 

The Food of the Animal.— The plant takes its food from 
mineral substances, water and gases and changes these materials 
into many compounds. These compounds are stored in the 
plant and are in a form suitable for animals and constitute their 
food. The animal feeds on the plant and changes plant sub- 
stances into bone, flesh and blood. If the animal is deprived of 
the plant it dies. Therefore we know that the plant is necessary 
for the existence of the animal and constitutes its food. 



2 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Action of the Plant on the Animal. — The plant is the animals' 
food. The plant builds them up, it keeps them warm and it 
furnishes substances which are changed into energy and motive 
power. No matter how cold it may be, we find that the plant 
enables the animal to maintain a constant body temperature. 
This temperature, in cold weather, is much warmer than the 
surrounding air, and in hot weather, it is cooler than the out- 
side air. Take any young animal and feed it plant substances, 
such as grain and hay, and it continues to take on bone and 
flesh until it becomes large and heavy. As the animal re- 
quires for its existence, those substances which the plant stores 
up, we may properly call plant substances animals' food or feed 
stuffs. 

Chemical Elements Needed by Plants. — All forms of matter 
in this world are made up of chemical elements in various com- 
binations. There are about 81 chemical elements known to us, 
but only 15 of these are required for plant life so far as we 
know. In order to thoroughly understand this subject of feeds 
and feeding let us become acquainted with these fifteen elements. 

The Fifteen Elements. — Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, 
potassium, phosphorus, calcium, sulphur, silicon, iron, chlorine, 
magnesium, sodium, fluorine, and manganese are the elements 
used by plants. Some of these elements are used in much larger 
amounts than others. Hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and chlorine, 
in the pure state, generally occur as gases, while the other 
elements are solids. 

Small amounts of oxygen are sometimes used by plants in the 
elementary state. Certain plants also use nitrogen in the free 
state. All the other elements, and generally oxygen and nitrogen, 
must be combined with other of these elements to be favorable 
for the support of plant life. 

Hydrogen. — This element is generally found in combination 
with other elements. In the free state it occurs only in small 1 
quantities upon the earth. It is present in the gases of petroleum 
wells, around volcanic eruptions, and it is evolved by the fer- 
mentation and decomposition of some organic substances. It 
is abundantly found in combination with other elements. Water, 



RELATION OF PLANT TO ANIMAL LlFL 3 

hydrochloric acid, marsh gas, sulphuretted hydrogen, all acids 
and most organic (animal and vegetable) compounds contain 
this element. It is necessary for plant and animal life and it is 
used by animals in the form of water and as a constituent of 
feeds. 

Oxygen. — About one-fifth of the atmosphere is made up of 
this element, in the free state, mechanically mixed with nitrogen. 
It is found in enormous quantities in combination with other 
elements. It constitutes about eight-ninths by weight of water 
and nearly one-half of the earth's crust. All combustion and 
decay require oxygen. The plant stores up oxygen in combina- 
tion with other elements and it enters into many of the com- 
pounds of the animal body. Without oxygen plants and animals 
would die. The plant takes in oxygen in combination with car- 
bon as carbonic acid gas, through the openings on the under 
sides of the leaves ; the carbon is absorbed and the excess of 
oxygen given off. The animal inhales air which contains oxygen, 
which serves to purify the blood, and exhales carbonic acid which 
is thrown off by the blood through the lungs. So the supply of 
oxygen and carbon is continually being used and formed. 

Nitrogen. — About four-fifths of the atmosphere is made up 
of nitrogen in the free state. In combination this element is 
found in many substances such as ammonia, sodium nitrate, 
potassium nitrate, and many organic compounds. Certain plants 
namely the legumes, of which the pea, bean, alfalfa, clovers, 
cowpea, soy bean, etc. are members, have the power of gather- 
ing nitrogen from the air, by means of certain growths (tuber- 
cles) on their roots. Our other plants are not capable of obtain- 
ing nitrogen in the free state. This element is one of the most 
important for us to consider. When in combination with other 
elements in plants, it is one of our most valuable compounds for 
animals' food. In fertilizers it is the most expensive and fugitive 
of essential elements. It tends to produce vigorous growth of 
plants. 

Carbon is found in the free state in charcoal, graphite and 
diamonds. In combination with oxygen we find carbon as car- 
bon dioxide (carbonic acid gas) in the air. It is given off by 



4 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

combustion and by respiration of animals. All carbonates (lime- 
stone, chalk, etc.) and all organic substances contain carbon. It 
is present in greater quantities in plant and animal life than any 
other element. Henry 1 says: "10,000 volumes of air contain 
about 3 volumes of carbonic acid gas ; 32 cubic yards of air hold 
one pound of this gas. An acre of growing wheat will gather 
during four months, 2,000 pounds of carbonic acid gas, or an 
amount equal to all the air contains over the same area of land to 
a height of three miles." All of our farm crops use a great 
amount of carbon in the form of carbonic acid gas. 

Potassium in combination is very common. It is mined in 
large quantities in the Stassfiirt mines of Germany. The pres- 
ence of this element in wood ashes is taken advantage of in mak- 
ing soft soap. Potassium is found in most rocks and in the 
soil. In plants it is associated with organic acids. This element 
is essential to plant growth and is found in the stems, leaves and 
fruits of plants. It is also present in the animal, mainly in the 
flesh, liver, blood corpuscles and also in bones, milk and other 
parts of the animal body. 

Phosphorus is found in combination with oxygen and metals, 
as phosphates. Vast deposits of phosphates are found in Tenn- 
essee, South Carolina, Florida and some of the western states. 
It is present in many rocks and most soils and is an important 
element for plant food. It tends to produce early maturity in 
plants and helps to form the seed. It is also very important to 
the animal, where it is found in the hair, urine, muscles, nerve 
tissues, gland cells, milk, and bones. Bones contain about 60 
to 65 per cent, of calcium phosphate which serves to strengthen 
them. 

Calcium is an element which occurs in combination in many 
substances as in lime, marble, coral, and gypsum. Plants and 
animals require this element, sometimes in larger amounts than 
one would imagine. In animals it is found in the blood, milk, 
egg shells and bones. A deficiency of this element in the food of 
the animal often causes serious diseases of the bones. 

1 Feeds and Feeding:. 



RELATION OF PLANT TO ANIMAL L1FL 5 

Sulphur. — This is a yellow substance which is found in large 
deposits in Louisiana, California, the Rocky Mountains and 
Sicily. In combination it is present in gypsum, pyrites, galena, 
etc. It is also found in many natural waters and is generally 
present in sufficient quantities in soils for the needs of plants. 
In certain parts of the animal body, such as the hair and other 
nitrogenous tissues, it occupies an important place. 

Silicon occurs- in combination as sand, flint, quartz, etc. It 
is present in most rocks and soils. Plants require this element 
to support certain parts of their structure. The hulls and straws 
of plant substances are often comparatively rich in this element. 

Iron. — We are all familiar with this element as in combination it 
is widely distributed. Although used in small amounts by plants 
and animals it is nevertheless very important. It is present in 
the blood and necessary to all cells of the animal body. 

Chlorine is most commonly found as the chloride (common 
salt). It also occurs in combination with hydrogen, as hydros- 
chloric acid, and in the gastric juice. 

Magnesium. — This element is prevalent in most rocks and soils 
in sufficient amounts for the plant. Many natural waters contain 
magnesium. It is found associated as carbonate, with lime. 
Bones and muscles contain magnesium. 

Sodium. — Chloride is the commonest compound of this ele- 
ment and is found in common salt, sea water, salt lakes and in 
many springs and waters. It occurs in sodium nitrate and 
sodium carbonate. As chloride, sodium is very important in 
animal life. It is present in blood serum, lymph and urine of 
animals. It is used a great deal in the fluids of the animal body 
and is a source of the acid in gastric juice. 

Fluorine. — This element occurs in combination with calcium. 
It is present in some mineral waters, in bones and the enamel 
of teeth. 

Manganese occurs in combination as manganese blend, man- 
ganese, spar, manganite, etc. Plants use this element in small 
amounts. 

Suggestion : Secure an exhibit of substances containing the 
elements discussed in this section. 



SECTION II. 



COMPOSITION OF THE DRY MATTER OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 

xA.ll plants and animals are made up of water and dry matter. 
The water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen while the dry 
matter contains many elements and combinations of elements. 

Composition of the Dry Matter of Plants. — According to Jor- 
dan, 1 a German scientist, Knop, estimated : "That if all the 
species of the vegetable kingdom, exclusive of the fungi, were 
fused into one mass, the ultimate composition of the dry matter 
of this mixture would be the following :" 

Per cent. 

Carbon . 45 

Oxygen — ...... 42 

Hydrogen 6.5 

Nitrogen 1.5 

Mineral compounds (ash) ............................. 5.0 

From the above analysis it is readily seen that carbon and 
oxygen make up the largest proportion of plants. Let us ex- 
amine the analyses of some farm products that are familiar to us, 
and find out if this same predominance of carbon and oxygen 
exists. 1 



Carbon 
Per cent, 



Oxygen 
Per cent. 



Hydrogen 
Per cent. 



Nitrogen 
Per cent. 



Ash 
Per cent. 



Clover hay 

Wheat kernel. .... 

Fodder beets 

Fodder beet leaves 
Wheat straw ...... 



47-4 
46.1 
42.8 
38.1 
48.4 



37-8 

43-4 
43-4 
30.8 

38.9 



5-o 

5-8 
5-8 
5-i 
5-3 



2.1 

2-3 

1.7 

4-5 
0.4 



7.7 
2.4 
6-3 
21.5 
7.0 



There is some variation in the composition of these farm 
products but the carbon and oxygen constitute the largest 
amounts of the elements present. 

This predominance of carbon and oxygen is due to the fact 
that about nineteen-twentieths of the plant's food is obtained 
from air and water, and the remaining one-twentieth is derived 
from mineral compounds of the soil and soil water. 

1 Jordan, "The Feeding of Animals." 



DRY MATTER OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS 7 

Distribution of the Mineral Elements in Plants. — Let us see 

the proportions of mineral elements that the plant stores up in 
its period of growth. This table is figured on dry matter. 1 



Apple 

Gooseberry 

Strawberry 

Orange . 

St.gar beet 

Sugar beet leaves. 

Turnip 

Turnip leaves 

Cabbage 

Cauliflower 

Onion 



Potas- 




Calcium 


Magne- 


t-~„ Phospho- 












•43 


.28 


.04 


.08 


.OI 


09 


1.09 


• 25 


•3° 


.12 


.11 


29 


•59 


.72 


•35 




.14 


21 


•93 


•3i 


•54 


•15 


•03 


15 


1.69 


•25 


•17 


.18 


•03 


20 


3-24 


1-52 


2.15 


I.02 


.06 


31 


3.02 


•59 


.61 


.18 


•05 


44 


2.26 


.82 


2.74 


.28 


•13 


37 


3-57 


.58 


.84 


.21 


•03 


50 


3-°7 


•37 


•33 


•19 


.06 


74 


1.49 


.10 


.86 


•15 


.08 


40 



Sul- 
phur 



.04 
.08 
.04 
•05 
.06 
•32 
.36 

• 44 
•53 

• 44 
.12 



Composition of the Dry Matter of Animals. — The proportion 
of carbon to oxygen is greater in animals than in plants. The 
increase of carbon over oxygen is due to the presence of fats in 
the animal body. Fats are made up largely of carbon. As in 
plants, the elements carbon and oxygen are found in the greatest 
amounts. The following table 2 gives the composition of a fat 
ox and two steers. 



Carbon 

Oxygen 

Hydrogen 

Nitrogen 

Mineral compounds (ash) 



Fat ox 

Lawes & Gilbert 

Per cent. 


Two steers 2 years old 

Maine Exp. Station 

Per cent. 


63.0 

13-8 

9-4 

5-o 

8.8 


60.0 

14.I 

9.0 

5-8 

II. I 



The above table is interesting because it shows that the animal 
body is composed so largely of carbon and oxygen. It also 
shows that the largest part of the elements required by animals 
does not have to be supplied to growing crops, as most of the 
animals' food is obtained by the plant from the air and water. 

1 Bui. 201, Ohio Experiment Station. 

2 Jordan, "The Feeding of Animals." 



EEEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Mineral Elements in Animal Substances. — The following table 1 
gives the distribution of the mineral elements in some animal 
substances. 



Hen's egg 

Swine's flesh- • 
Chicken's flesh. 
Steer's flesh 
Wool scoured • 
Wool fleece 
Cow's milk • • • • 



Potas- 
sium 


Sodium 


Cal- 
cium 


Magne- 
sium 


Iron 


Phos- 
phorus 


Sul- 
phur 


•50 


•59 


.27 


.02 


.OI 


•57 


.004 


•94 


•58 


•03 


. IO 


.02 


.78 


•75 


[.47 


•30 


•03 


.12 


•03 


.80 


.92 


151 


.27 


.OI 


.IO 


.IO 


.70 


• 78 


.18 


.02 


.20 


.04 


.14 


.02 




5-49 


.26 


.14 


•03 


.04 


.04 


.16 


■15 


.07 


.12 


.or 


.002 


.08 





Chlo- 
rine 



14 



The distribution of the mineral elements in the body of the 
ox is as follows : 2 

Per cent. 

Phosphorus .677 

Calcium 1.281 

Magnesium .037 

Potassium. . 146 

Sodium .094 

Iron .017 

Sulphur .013 

Live weight 1419 pounds 

Age 4 years 

Calcium, phosphorus and potassium predominate in the miner- 
al compounds of the animal body. Although some of the other 
elements are present in only small amounts they are very im- 
portant to the welfare of the animal. 



1 Bui. 201, Ohio Experiment Station. 
- Bui. 201, Ohio Experiment Station. 



SECTION III. 



WATER AND DRY MATTER IN PLANTS. 

The substances which the plant stores up in its period of 
growth are made up of the chemical elements previously de- 
scribed. These elements are not found in the free state in plants, 
but in various combinations, and may be classified as water and 
dry matter. 

Kinds of Water in Plants. — All plants and parts of plants 
contain water. The water in plants is of two forms ; physio- 
logical and hygroscopic. 

i. Physiological Water is that which is contained in the plant 
structure. It is obtained from the soil. It is used to keep the 
leaf tissues and their cell walls moist so that carbonic acid gas 
may be absorbed, to transfer food materials, and to regulate the 
temperature of the plant by means of evaporation of water, just 
as the temperature, of the animal body is regulated by the 
evaporation of perspiration. 

2. Hygroscopic Water is that which is taken up from the air 
and may vary from day to day according to the humidity of the 
surrounding air. On rainy days more water would be taken up 
than on dry days. The writer has often determined the water 
content of the same samples of corn meal, wheat bran, cotton 
seed meal, hays, etc., on different days and found variations 
of two per cent. Sometimes there is an increase and at other 
times a decrease of hygroscopic water, ' depending upon the 
humidity of the surrounding air. The hygroscopic moisture 
also varies with different plant materials. 

Amounts of Water Used by Plants. — According to Whitson, 1 the 
amount of water used by plants varies greatly with the kind of 
plant and with climatic conditions, but is always large. For 
instance, in the growth of one pound of dry matter of corn about 
250 to 300 pounds of water are used ; for potatoes, 350 to 400 
pounds ; for clover, 500 to 600 pounds. 

Variation of Water in Plants. — Some species of plants con- 
tain much more water than others and the different parts of the 

1 Halligan, " Fundamentals of Agriculture." 



10 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND EEEDING 

same plant show a great variation in water content. We have all 
no doubt noticed that certain fruits like the apple, pear, lemon, 
plum, peach, strawberry, etc., and roots and tubers as the turnip, 
beet, radish, carrot, Irish potato, etc., contain a great deal of 
water. Perhaps some have not heretofore thought that sub- 
stances like corn grain, wheat kernel, rice kernel, the several 
grain straws, etc., have water present. The following table gives 
us the percentage of water in some familiar plants and parts of 
plants. 

Fruits Forage Plants (green) 

Percent. Percent. 

Apple ................. 80.0 Alfalfa 71.8 

Grape 83.0 Corn 79.3 

Peach 88.4 Cowpea 83.6 

Pear . 83.1 Sorghum 79. 4 

Strawberry 90.2 Timothy 61.6 

Roots and Tubers Cereals and Straws 

Beet (mangel) 90.9 Cortu(grain) 10.6 

Carrot... 88.6 Oats (grain) 11. o 

Irish potato 78.9 Rice (rough) ..... 10.9 

Sweet potato 71. 1 Rye straw 7. 1 

Turnip 90.5 Wheat straw 9.6 

Water in Young and Mature Plants. — The percentage of water 
in young plants is greater than in mature plants. This is easily 
accounted for because the young plant uses a great deal of 
water in transferring food materials required for its growth. 
The Maine State College conducted an investigation on Timothy 
with the following results : x 

Water Water 

Per cent. Per cent. 

Nearly headed out 78.7 Out of blossom 65.2 

In full blossom 71.9 Nearly ripe 63.3 

The results on Timothy are similar to what would be found 
with other plants. It follows that the more mature a plant is, 
the easier it is to field cure. 

Active cells in plants contain more water than do the older or 
less active cells and this may account for the larger percentage 
of water found in young plants. 

1 Jordan, " The Feeding of Animals." 



WATER AND DRY MATTER IN PLANTS 



II 



Dry Matter of Plants. — As previously stated, the plant is made 
up of water and dry matter. When water is driven off from 
plants the dry matter is what remains. Now if we burn this 
dry matter a large proportion of it passes off in the form of 
invisible gases. This material which so disappears, in burning, 
is known as organic matter; that which is left is the ash or 
mineral matter. 

The organic matter is composed of protein, fats, nitrogen free 
extract and fiber. The ash is made up of soda, phosphorus, 
sulphur, iron, potash, lime, sand, magnesia, etc. 

Jordan 1 shows the relation of the fifteen elements to these 
compounds : 

1 Water I Oxygen 

water \ Hydrogen 



Incombustible 
or inorganic 



(^ Ash 



All vegetable or 
animal matter * 



Combustible or 
organic matter 



Carbohydrates 
and fats 



Oxygen 

Sulphur 

Chlorine 

Phosphorus 

Silicon 

Fluorine 

Potassium 

Sodium 

Calcium 

Magnesium 

Iron 

Manganese 

f Carbon 
Oxygen 
Hydrogen 
Nitrogen 
■ Sulphur 

(generally) 
Phosphorus 

(sometimes) 
Iron (in a few cases) 

Carbon 
Oxygen 
Hydrogen 



Composition of Plants. — We may express the composition of 
plants and parts of plants (feed stuffs) in a condensed form as 
follows : 



Plant 
(feedstuff) 



{ 



Water 
Dry matter 



Ash 

Organic 
matter 



Protein 

Fats 

Carbohydrates 



Nitrogen 

free extract 
Fiber 



The chemist usually expresses the composition as 
Protein Crude fiber 

Fats (ether extract) Water 

Nitrogen free extract Ash 

1 " The Feeding of Animals " 



12 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Water in Animals. — There is considerable water in the animal 
body. It is present in the blood, tissues, and digestive juices 
and secretions. About So per cent, of the blood is water ; the 
per cent, of water in the tissues and digestive fluids varies 
according to their nature and in species. 

The following data are the results of investigations by Lawes 
and Gilbert and the Maine Experiment Station. 

Water 

Per ceir . 

Fat calf 63.0 

Half-fat ox 51.5 

Fat ox 45.5 

Steer half fat, 1 7 months old 56.3 

Steer half fat, 17 months old 59.0 

Steer fat, 27 months old 52.2 

Steer fat, 27 months old 51.9 

Fat lamb 47.8 

Sheep lean 57.3 

Half-fat old sheep 50.2 

Fat sheep 43. 4 

Extra fat sheep 35.2 

Lean pig 55. 1 

Fat pig 41.3 

From the above data we can see there is a wide variation in 
the water of animals, and that the per cent, of water is always 
large. The fat calf contains 63 per cent, of water while in the 
extra fat sheep the water is as low as 35.2 per cent. It is shown 
that the water content decreases with age ; the fat calf contains 
17.5 per cent, more water than the fat ox. The per cent, of 
water varies with species ; the pig generally contains less water 
than sheep and cattle. The degree of fatness also influences 
the amount of water in the animal body ; the fat ox and the fat 
sheep contain much less water than the half-fat ox and sheep. 
It may be safely said that about 50 per cent, of the body of the 
animal is made up of water. 

Suggestion : Take one pound of green grass and dry it in 
the sun or else take some sliced potatoes and dry them below 
212 degrees Fahrenheit and ascertain the loss in weight. What 
is the loss in weight due to? 



SECTION IV. 



ASH IN PLANTS. 

The mineral elements that make up the ash are not present in 
the free state but in various combinations. A knowledge of the 
ash of plants and the combinations that make it up should be 
understood by the feeder. 

Acids and Bases. — The acids and bases of the mineral ele- 
ments of ash are : 

Acids 
Sulphuric (hydrogen, sulphur and oxygen) H 2 SO^ 
Hydrochloric (hydrogen and chlorine) HC1 
Phosphoric (hydrogen, phosphorus and oxygen) H 6 P 2 8 
Carbonic (carbon and oxygen) CO., 
Silicic (silicon and oxygen) SiO., 

Bases 
Liine (calcium and oxygen) CaO 
Soda (sodium and oxygen) Na a O 
Potash (potassium and oxygen) K 2 
Magnesia (magnesium and oxygen) MgO 
Iron oxide (iron and oxygen) Fe 2 3 

The mineral elements do not exist as acids and bases in the 
ash, because in the burning of plant substances there is a re- 
arrangement of the mineral elements and salts are formed. 

Salts. — The elements exist in the ash of plants as salts. That 

is the acids and bases as united and form : 

Phosphates "| f Calcium 

Sulphates ! f } Magnesium 

Chlorides and f | Sodium 

Carbonates J [ Potassium 

We are all familiar with some of these salts. A few of the 
combinations are : 

Chloride of sodium (common salt) 

Carbonate of lime (limestone) 

Chloride of potash (muriate of potash) 

Carbonate of soda (baking powder) 

Sulphate of soda (Glauber's salts) 

Sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts) 

Sulphate of calcium (gypsum) 

Sulphate of potash (common sulphate of potash of commerce) 



14 ELEMENTARY TREATISE) ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Variation of Ash. — The content of ash in different feeds var- 
ies a great deal as the following- table shows : 



Grains Ash 

Per cent. 

Corn 1.5 

Oats 3.0 

Rice 5.5 

Wheat 1.8 

Roots and Tubers (fresh) 
Beet (mangel) ...... 1.1 

Carrot 1.0 

Trish potato. ........ 1.0 

Sweet potato 1.0 



Straw Ash 

Per cent. 

Oat..... 5.1 

Rice 7.8 

Rye 3.2 

Wheat 4.2 

Forage Plants (hay) 

Alfalfa 7.4 

Crimson clover 8.6 

Orchard grass • - 6.0 

Timothy • • • 4.4 



Different parts of the same plant vary in ash content. 



Ash 

Per cent 



Corn grain 

r.5 

Corn leaves • • • 9.7 

Corn (whole plant) ..... 4.3 

Corn germ 4.0 



Ash 
Per cent. 
Corn stover (whole plant 

except ears) 4.9 

Corn shucks 3. \ 

Corncob 1.4 

Corn bran 1.3 



There is also a variation in the amounts of compounds in the 
ash of different parts of the same plant. The percentages of the 
compounds in this table are figured on 100 per cent, ash of sugar 
cane. 1 



Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Iron oxide 

Alumina 

Silica 

Phosphoric acid 
Sulphuric acid • 
Carbonic acid • - 
Chlorine ...... . 

Carbon 

Ash 



Ash of leaves 
Per cent. 



3I- 2 5 
1.17 
5-90 
5- 1 1 

1-45 
1.03 

3°-3 2 
7-25 

11.29 
1. 10 
3.08 
0.16 
2.23 



Ash of stalk 
Per cent. 



38-23 
I.30 

5-i9 
5-76 

113 

0.25 

i5-7o 
5-27 

18.47 
2.70 
4-52 
o.54 
0.64 



Ash of roots 
Per cent. 



17-39 
0.85 

3-45 
2.61 
3.60 
4.70 
49-52 
3-99 
9->5 
o-45 
0.98 
2.30 
1.87 



1 Louisiana Experiment Station, Bui. 91. 



ASH IN PLANTS 1 5 

From the figures given in the foregoing tables we find that 
the leaves of plants contain the most ash. The straws contain 
more ash than the grains. 

Let us see the relation of the ash of roots to the leaves of the 
same plant. 

Roots Leaves 

Per cent, ash Per cent, ash 

Sugar beet...... 3.83 14.88 

Stock turnip 8.01 11.64 

The per cent, of ash in seeds is generally less than in the plant 
from which they are derived. 

Ash Ash 

Per cent. Per cent. 
Sorghum seed 2.1 Sorghum fodder 4.6 

Cowpea seed 3.2 Cowpea hay 7.5 

Soj a bean seed 4.7 Soja bean hay 7.2 

The per cent, of ash and the mineral elements that constitute 
the ash are given for several vegetable substances in the follow- 
ing table. 1 

Occurrence of Mineral Elements in Plants. — According to 
Forbes, Ohio Experiment Station Bui. 201 : "Mineral sub- 
stances of foodstuffs are present in four mechanical conditions : 
(1) in solution in the plant juices; (2) as crystals in the tissues; 
(3) as incrustations in cells and (4) in chemical combination 
with the living substance. 

"The mineral content of any species of plant varies con- 
siderably as affected (i) by the composition of the soil and the 
soil water, (2) by the various factors controlling transpiration of 
water by the plant and (3) by the loss of mineral substances 
either through shedding of parts or through the leaching' effect 
of dews and rains." 

Distribution of Ash in Plants. — Roots and seeds generally 
contain much less ash than leaves because the mineral elements 
are carried to the leaves for the elaboration (manufacturing) of 
food and then the water evaporates and the ash remains. The 
ash present in roots and seeds is usually needed for supporting 
germination and early growth of the plant, while some of that in 
the leaves is in excess of what is really needed. 

1 Bui. 201, Ohio Experiment Station. 



l6 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Mineral Elements in Vegetable Substances (dry basis] 



Seeds 

Barley 

Bean (white) 

Corn 

Oats 

Rice (clean) 

Soy bean 

Winter wheat 
By-Products 

Corn meal 

Cotton seed meal- 

Linseed meal 

Patent flour 

Rice bran (meal) 

Wheat bran 

Roots and Tubers 

Potato 

Radish 

Sugar beet 

Turnip 

Leaves 

Sugar beet leaves ■ 

Turnip leaves. . . • 
Legumes 

Alfalfa in bloom . 

Clover (red) in 
bl >om 

Clover (white) in 

bloom 

Grasses 

Kentucky blue- • 

Timothy 

Stratv 

Oat 

Wheat . 

Fodder 

Corn stover 

Miscellaneous 

Cabbage 

Cauliflower 

Rape 



Ash 



Potas- 
sium 



Sodium 



I.99 
3.22 

1-45 
3.12 

•39 
3-14 
1.96 

.68 
7-48 
5-84 

• 5i 
6.08 
6.16 



3-79 

15-67 

3.83 

8.01 



14.88 
11.64 

7-38 
6.86 

7-32 

5-i8 
6.S2 

7.17 
5-37 

5-33 

9.62 

8-35 
8.10 



.27 
1. 18 

•36 

.46 

.07 

1. 16 

• 5i 

.16 
1.85 
1.1S 

• 15 

.56 
1.46 

1.89 
2.86 

1.69 
3.02 



3-24 
2.26 



1.44 
1.84 
1.31 

1.81 

1.96 



1.72 
.61 



1.61 

3-57 
3-07 
2.23 



.06 
.04 
.01 
.04 
.02 
.02 
•03 

.02 

.06 

■ °°3 
.10 

•03 



-44 
• 25 
•59 

1-52 

.82 



.10 
.10 
•39 

.09 

.18 
.06 

•05 

.58 
•37 
.20 



Cal- 
cium 



Magne 
sium 



.OI 

•15 
.02 
.08 
.OI 
. 12 
•05 



•03 
.24 

•35 
•03 
.09 

.13 



.07 
■98 

-17 
.61 



2.15 

2-74 

2.15 
1.71 

1.58 

.18 
•39 

•36 
.22 

.41 

.84 

•33 
1.27 



• 15 

• 15 
.14 
.14 
•03 

• 17 
.14 

06 
69 
56 
03 
64 
66 

.11 

•35 
.18 
.18 



1.02 

.28 



Phos- 
phorus 



•45 
.42 

. IO 
■13 

.16 

.08 

.18 

.21 
•'9 
•'9 



.02 
.OI 
.08 

•03 
.003 



.02 

.07 

.II 

.002 

•23 

•03 

•03 
•13 
•03 
•05 

.06 
.13 

.IO 
•05 
.1 I 



.04 

.06 
.02 

.09 



■03 

.06 
.07 



.29 

■50 
.29 

•35 
.09 

• 50 
.40 

•13 

r.50 

.81 

.11 

1. 14 

i-35 

.28 

2.81 

.20 

• 44 

•3i 
•37 

.27 

•29 
.41 

.22 

•35 

.14 



• T 9 

• 50 

• 74 
•39 



Sul- 
phur 



.02 

•05 
.004 
.02 
.OOI 

•03 
.003 



.04 
.08 



.OI 
.002 



.IO 

.48 
.06 
.36 



•32 

• 44 

■ 17 
.09 



.10 
.08 



.09 

•05 



• 53 
-44 
•45 



Phosphorus and potassium are present in the largest amounts 
in seeds, followed by magnesia. Silicon and potassium predom- 
inate in cereal grasses and straws, and the per cent, of calcium 



ASH IN PLANTS 1 7 

is usually larger than phosphorus or magnesium. The legumin- 
ous crops (alfalfa, clovers, cowpeas, soy beans, etc.) contain 
more calcium than phosphorus or potassium. Roots and legumes 
contain much less silicon than straws. 

Ash of Young and Mature Plants. — According to Wolff the 
per cent, of ash of the dry matter of wheat, oats, rye, and clover 
decreases with the growth of the plant. The ash of healthful 
plants is generally higher in calcium than in sickly plants. The 
per cent, of calcium and potassium in the ash of grass plants 
decreases in the growing of the plant and the silicon increases. 
In the ash of the dry matter of clover, the magnesium and calcium 
increase while the potassium decreases. 

Suggestion : Take a small quantity of hay and have the 
pupils approximate the weight of it. Burn this hay in a dish 
and show the students the remaining portion or ash. Ask them 
the loss in weight. Let them rub the ash between their fingers. 



SECTION V. 



ASH IN ANIMALS. 

The ash in animals is small in amount but it is very important 
that animals receive sufficient of this constituent for the full de- 
velopment of their bodies. 

Mineral Constituents must be supplied to build bones, teeth, 
and other hard parts of the animal body. The digestive fluids, 
blood, brain and other parts of the animal, require mineral sub- 
stances to render them complete. In order that many parts of 
the animal body may carry on their functions, mineral com- 
pounds must be constantly furnished. To form bones and teeth, 
calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, carbonates, chlorides, and fluor- 
ides are necessary. 

The gastric juice must be supplied with mineral elements to 
form hydrochloric acid and chlorides. Potassium is also present 
in the gastric juice as well as in the saliva. Iron is found in the 
blood and iodine in the thyroid gland. Sulphur and phosphorus 
are present in the brain, blood and many other organs, un- 
oxidized. 

Calcium and Phosphorus. — These are the most important min- 
eral elements entering into animal life. Often the soil becomes 
depleted of calcium and phosphorus, and plants grown on such 
soil, when used for animal food, sometimes lack sufficient quanti- 
ties of these elements for the production of bones, milk, eggs, 
flesh, wool, nerves, etc. and for the general welfare of the animal. 

Malnutrition. — Again some of our feeding materials never 
do contain sufficient amounts of calcium and phosphorus for 
the animal, and serious diseases are sometimes brought about 
through malnutrition of bones. Corn grain or corn meal, for 
example, when fed alone as food for hogs in the pen, does not 
supply enough of the mineral elements to form rigid bones to 
support the body. An examination of the composition of the ash 
of the bones of an ox may be interesting. 



ASH IN ANIMALS 



19 



Composition of the Bones oe an Ox. 1 

Per cent. 

Calcium phosphate 85.72 

Calcium carbonate 1 1 .96 

Calcium chloride 0.30 

Calcium fluoride 0.45 

Magnesium phosphate 1.53 

Iron oxide o. 13 

The composition of the bones of other animals approximates 
that of the ox and we can readily see that animals must receive 
calcium and phosphorus in order that they may build up strong 
bones to support their bodies. 

Ratio of Phosphoric Acid to Lime. — About 85 per cent, of the 
ash of bones is lime and phosphoric acid. These compound? 
usually exist in the following ratio ; one of phosphoric acid to 
one and one-half of lime; or, 1:1.5. If the animal is receiving 
food that reaches or approximates this ratio, we may feel certain 
that the mineral compounds for building the bony structure are 
being properly supplied. The following table, the work of 
Warrington or Wolff, gives the ratio of phosphoric acid to lime 
in several feeds common to the feeder of live-stock. 



Name of feed 



Phosphoric acid 



Corn ( grain ) 

Oats (grain) 

Wheat (grain) ... . 

Barley (grain ) 

Kafir corn (grain ) 

Peas (seed) 

Wheat bran 

Wheat plant 

Oat hay 

Potato (Irish) 

Turnip 

Corn fodder (dry) 

Meadow hay 

Cabbage 

White clover (in bloom) 

Red clover 

Alfalfa 

Pea straw 




0.04 
o. 16 
0.07 
0.06 
0.02 
0.08 
0.09 
0.66 
0.77 

0.15 
0.83 

i-35 
2.27 

2.24 
2.28 
3.60 
4.78 
4.62 



1 Carnot. 



20 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

The ratio of lime to phosphoric acid is very low in the grains, 
the oat hay and the wheat plant. Notice how high the ratio 
is in the legumes (clovers, alfalfa and pea straw). What an 
excellent combination the legumes and grasses make for the 
grains and their by-products in furnishing the mineral con- 
stituents so necessary for animal life. What a poor ration oat 
hay, wheat hay or other of the cereal straws, and the grains would 
make for supplying the needs of animals, because of the excess 
of phosphoric acid to lime. 

Composition of Milk. — It is especially essential that the young 
animals receive adequate mineral constituents in order to get a 
good start in life. If we examine the composition of milk of 
various animals we learn that nature has provided for this. 1 



Species 



Time in days 
for the new 
born animal 
to double its 
weight 



100 parts of milk contain 



Calcium 



Phosphorus 



Human 
Horse . 
Cow- • • 
Goat • • 
Sheep • 
Swine • 

Cat 

Dog ■ • - 
Rabbit 



1 80 

60 

47 
22 

15 

14 

9- 

9 

6 



1.6 
2.0 
3-5 
3-7 
4-9 
5-2 
7.0 

7-4 
10.4 



0.2 

0.4 

0.7 

0.78 

0.84 

0.S0 

1.02 

1-33 
2.50 



02[ 


.022 


086 


•<>57 


114 


.087 


143 


. 122 


I 7 8 


. I 27 


178 


•'35 



.636 



•437 



It seems that the more rapid the growth of the animal the 
higher are the protein and ash contents. This is as it should be, 
for a fast growing animal must have rigid bones to support the 
body. , 

Composition of the Ash of Animals. — The following table 1 gives 
the composition of the ash of a few fat animals in per cent. The 
data is the work of Lawes and Gilbert. 



1 Bui. 201, Ohio Experiment Station. 



ASH IN ANIMALS 



21 



Calf 



Sheep 



L,amb 



Pig 



Phosphorus- • . . 

Calcium 

Magnesium .... 

Potassium 

Sodium 

Iron 

Sulphur 

Live weight lbs. 
A<ie 



.677 
1. 281 

• 037 
.146 
.094 
.017 
.013 
1419 
4 yrs. 



.670 

1. 177 
.048 
.171 
. 109 
.015 
.016 

258.8 
9.5 wks. 



• 454 
.846 
.029 

■"3 

.072 

.024 

.012 

127.2 

1% yrs. 



.492 

•9i5 
.031 

.138 
.076 
.018 
.016 
84.4 



286 

455 
019 

115 
054 
009 
012 
85.0 



The results in this table show that calcium and phosphorus are 
present in the greatest amounts in the animal body. Although 
the mineral constituents are found in small amounts in the animal 
body, they are absolutely necessary for the health of the animal. 
Potassium is present in larger amounts than sodium ; magnesium 
is found in larger amounts than iron and sulphur; iron and 
sulphur seem to be present in about equal amounts except in 
sheep, where iron predominates. 



SECTION VI. 



PROTEIN IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 

Protein (nitrogenous compounds), includes all compounds of 
the plant and animal body containing nitrogen. Protein is made 
up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen ; generally sulphur ; 
sometimes phosphorus; and in a few cases iron. About 16 per 
cent, of the protein is nitrogen. Protein is perhaps the most 
important constituent to consider in the feeding of animals. 

The compounds of protein are classified by the Association of 
American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations as 
follows : 



Protein, 
Total nitrogen 
compounds 



Proteids 



Non-proteids 



| Albuminoids -{ 

1 ! 

j Collagens or l_ 

I gelatinoids 



Extractives 
amides,amido 
acids, etc. 



Simple 



Modified 



f Albumins 

■i Globulins 

I, and allies 

f Derived 

{ Compound 



Protein in the Plant. — Protein is found in the plant as al- 
buminoids and amides. The albuminoids are represented as leg- 
umin, the nitrogenous compound of legumes (peas, bean, alfalfa, 
clover, etc.), as gluten of the wheat grain, and as vegetable 
albumen resembling white of egg, which is found in the juices 
of plants. Crude gluten may be obtained by washing dough of 
wheat flour to a sticky mass. Most of the protein of feed stuffs 
is present as albuminoids. Amides are soluble in water and are 
considered more abundant in young plants and growing parts of 
plants. It is believed that the function of amides is to transfer 
nitrogen from one part of the plant to another. The nitrogen of 
roots, tubers, and cane molasses is more largely made up of 
amides than in other feeds. The grains and seeds contain less 
of such nitrogen compounds than other feeding stuffs. The 
flesh forming function of amides is doubtful and so the protein 
obtained from roots, tubers and cane molasses is not considered 
as valuable as that from grains and seeds. 



PROTEIN IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 



23 



Protein in Plants 



Protein 


Water 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


12.4 


IO.9 


9-3 


10.6 


11. 8 


II. O 


11.9 


10.5 


18.4 


10.3 


20.8 


14.8 


22.6 


9.2 


34-o 


IO.8 


14-3 


8.4 


14.4 


II. 9 


15-2 


9.6 


12.3 


15-3 



Protein 
Per cent. 



Water 
Per cent. 



Grain 

Barley 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Seeds 

Cotton 

Cowpea 

Flax 

Soja bean 

Leguminous Hay 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Crimson clover . 
Red clover < 



Straw 

Oat 

Rice 

Rye 

Wheat • 

Roots & Tubers 

Beet (mangel). 

Carrot 

Irish potato. . . . 

Turnip 

Grass Hay 

Kentucky blue- 

Meadow fescue 

Orchard ....... 

Timothy 



4.0 
5-9 

3-° 
3-4 

1. 1 
1.0 
1.0 
1.1 

7.8 

7.0 

8.1 
5-9 



9.2 
12.0 

7-1 
9.6 

90.9 
88.6 
78.9 
90.5 



21.2 
20.0 

9-9 
13.2 



From the above results we can see that the protein in seeds 
is greater than in straws. In the woody or older parts of the 
plant very little protein is found. The legumes are richer in 
protein than the grasses. Grass hay and straw contain much 
more protein than roots. The protein in grains is found largely 
in the germ and that portion closely surrounding it. 

Distribution of Protein in the Corn Plant 



Corn grain 

Corn bran 

Corn germ 

Corn cob 

Corn (whole plant) 

Corn leaves 

Corn shucks 



Protein 


Water 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


10.3 


10.6 


5-8 


9.1 


9.8 


IO.7 


2.4 


10.7 


4-8 


32.2 


11.8 


8.9 


3-4 


8.1 



This distribution of protein in corn is interesting. The bran 
is the outer covering of the corn grain and is for protecting the 
seed, and is therefore low in protein. The outer coverings of 
other seeds as oats, rice, cotton, etc. also contain less protein than 
the other parts of the seed. The germ, or embryo plant, is com- 
paratively rich in protein for it is this part of the seed that must 



4 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



be used for reproducing the plant. The leaves or growing parts, 
are rich in protein while the shucks, which protect the grain, are 
low in nitrogenous substances. The distribution of protein in 
corn is similar to the distribution of protein in other plants. 

Protein in Animals. — Protein in animals is present as album- 
inoids, gelatinoids, and as horny substances. 

Albuminoids are found in all the healthy organs and fluids of 
the animal body except the urine. The principal albuminoids 
are the albumen, such as white of egg, which is found in most 
animal fluids, the casein of milk, the fibrin of meat, and the 
fibrin of blood (present in the clotting of blood). 

Gelatinoids. — The nitrogenous substances of bone and cartilage 
are gelatinoids. We have all no doubt noticed in the cooking 
of bones and tendons, the familiar substance gelatine which is 
derived from the gelatinoids perhaps by taking on water. The 
connective tissue, ligaments and the skin contain gelatinoids. 

Horny Substances. — The protein in the hair, horns, hoofs, wool, 
etc. is somewhat similar to the albuminoids and gelatinoids. 
Per Cent. Protein in Animal Bodies. 1 





Ox 


Calf 


Sheep 


Lamb 


Pig 




If ~ 

1 


Fat 


Thin 


Half 
fat 


Fat 


Verv 
fat' 


Fat 


Thin 


Fat 


Protein • • 
Live wt. 
lbs.... 
Age 


16.6 ! 14.5 

1,232 1,419 
4 yrs.; 4yrs. 


15-2 

258 s 
9.5 wk 


14.8 

97.6 

i yr. 


14.O 

105.I 
3 % yrs 


12.2 

127.2 

i#yrs 


IO.9 

239-4 

1 3^yrs 


12.3 
84.4 

l A yr- 


13-7 

93-9 


10.9 
185 



Thin animals contain more protein than fat animals because 
the protein is present in lean meat in greater proportions than in 
fatty tissues. 

There is a greater per cent, of protein in the animal body than 
in most plants or parts of plants. 

Suggestion : Chop up some meat and extract it with cold 
water. Boil the extract and note the albumin that separates out. 
Treat this albumin with cold water again and see if it is soluble. 
Have the students state whether it is better to soak meat in cold 

1 Lawts and Gilbert, Bui. 201, Ohio Experiment Station. 



PROTEIN IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 25 

water before cooking or to boil it at once to prevent .losses. 
Take the white of egg and cook it in boiling water and note the 
result. Chop up some meat and extract it with about a 10 per 
cent, solution of common salt and boil the extract. Are there 
any more albuminoids extracted in this way than with cold 
water? Boil some fresh bones and obtain gelatine. Try to 
treat some wheat grain by extracting the starch with cold water 
and obtain a sticky mass which contains the gluten of the grain. 



SECTION VII. 



NITROGEN FREE COMPOUNDS. 

The compounds we are about to study are made up of the 
elements carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, i. c. they are free from 
nitrogen, and are called the nitrogen free compounds. These 
compounds are nitrogen free extract, carbohydrates, crude fiber 
and fats. 

Nitrogen Free Extract. — As previously stated the compounds 
of this group are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. 
There are a great many substances with which we are familiar 
that come under this group of substances, such as starches, 
various sugars, vegetable gums, and organic acids. The most 
important group of nitrogen free extract substances are the 
carbohydrates in which the hydrogen and oxygen are present 
in the proportion of water, namely, two parts of hydrogen and 
one of oxygen. The starches and sugars are the carbohydrates. 
Potato starch and corn starch are some of the common starches. 
Examples of the sugars are, the common white sugar (sucrose) 
used at the table and corn syrup which sugar content is main- 
ly glucose, and manufactured from starch. Various mixtures of 
sucrose and glucose prevail among the sugars. Sucrose however 
is the most important sugar as it is found in many of our plants 
as sugar cane, sugar beet, sweet potato, corn plant, sorghum, 
roots and some grasses. 

Vegetable Gums are found in beet pulp, gum arabic, wood 
gum of wood and straw, and in the stems and leaves of plants. 
Most, if not all, of our feed stuffs contain vegetable gums. 

Organic Acids occur in fruits, silage, and sour milk. Exam- 
ples of these acids are citric acid of lemons, acetic acid of 
vinegar, malic acid of apples, lactic acid of milk, and acetic and 
lactic acids of silage. 

The nitrogen free extract is often termed carbohydrates al- 
though from the previous statements we know that such practice 
is not correct. The chemist determines nitrogen free extract by 
subtracting the sum of the protein, fats, crude fiber, water and 
ash from ioo. 



NITROGEN FREE COMPOUNDS 



27 



Table Showing Nitrogen Free Extract in Plant Substances 



N. F. E. 


Water 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


69.8 


I0.9 


70.4 


10.6 


59-7 


II. O 


71.9 


IO.5 


24.7 


IO.3 


55-7 


14.8 


23.2 


9.2 


28.8 


10.8 


24.7 


71. 1 



N. F. E. 
Per cent. 



Water 
Per cent. 



Grain 

Barley 

Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 

Seeds 

Cotton 

Cowpea 

Flax 

Soja bean... 
Root 

Sweet potato 



Straw 

Oat 

Rice 

Rye 

Wheat 

Forage Plants 
(hay) 

Alfalfa 

Crimson clover 

Kentucky blue. 

Timothy 

Tuber 

Irish potato. •• • 



42.4 

33-7 
46.6 

43-4 



42.7 
36.6 
37-8 
45-o 

17.3 



9.2 
12.0 

7-i 
9.6 



8.4 

9.6 

21.2 

13.2 

78.9 



The grains run high in nitrogen free extract due to the large 
amount of starch present. The starch content also predominates 
in the dry matter of potatoes. 

Distribution of Nitrogen Free Extract in Parts of Corn 



n. f. e. 

Per cent. 



Water 
Per cent. 



Corn grain 70.4 10.6 

Corn bran 62.2 9.1 

Corn germ 64.0 10.7 

Corncob 54.9 10.7 

Corn (whole plant) 37.2 32.2 

Corn leaves 41.5 8.9 

Corn shucks 51.6 8.1 

The grain of corn is exceedingly high in carbohydrates (starch) 
and advantage of this is taken in fattening animals which we 
will speak of later. The starch of this grain is employed com- 
mercially in making corn starch and corn syrup. 

Carbohydrates in Animals. — Glycogen which is found in the 
liver and muscles, and milk sugar found in the milk of mammals 
are the only carbohydrates in the animal body that we know 
of. The carbohydrates of plants are changed to fats in the 
animal body. Carbohydrates therefore do not occur in the ani- 
mal body to such a large extent as in plants. 

Crude Fiber. — The woody parts of plants are called crude 
fiber. Cotton lint is almost pure fiber. Crude fiber is made up 



28 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



principally of the cellulose of which the cell walls are mostly 

composed. It is really the framework or the structure of plants. 

Table Showing Crude Fiber in Plant Substances 



Grain 

Buckwheat- 

Corn • 

Oats 

Rye • 

Hulls (seed 
coats) • . • 
Buckwheat • 
Cotton seed 

Oat 

Rice 



Leaves and 

Stems 



Beet . . • 
Turnip. 



Fiber 
Per cent. 



8.7 

2.2 

9-5 
1.7 



44-5 
45-1 
29.7 
41.9 



1.2 
1.6 



Water 
Per cent. 



12.6 
IO.6 
II.O 
IO.5 



10.0 
II. I 

7-3 
9.0 



89-5 
84.0 



Straw 

Oat 

Rice ...... 

Rye...- 

Wheat 

Forage Plants 
(hay) 

Alfalfa 

Crimson clover 

Kentucky blue. 

Timothy 



Roots 
Beet... 
Turnip 



Fiber 
Per cent. 



37-0 
38.6 

38.9 

38.I 



29.O 
20.2 
23.O 
29.O 



0.9 
T.2 



Water 
Per cent. 



9.2 
I2.0 

7-1 
9.6 



8.4 

9.6 

21.2 

13.2 



90.9 
90-5 



The fiber in the hulls or seed coats of grains and seeds is much 
higher than in the grains and seeds from which they are derived. 
The leaves and stems of the beet and turnip contain a great deal 
more fiber than their roots. The grasses contain less fiber than 
straws and more than roots. Stems of plants usually contain a 
comparatively large amount of fiber. Old plants contain more 
fiber than young plants because the cell walls of old plants are 
thicker than in young plants. 

Distribution of Fiber in Parts of Corn 



Fiber 
Per cent. 



Water 
Per cent. 

I0.6 



Corn grain 2.2 

Corn bran • 12.7 9.1 

Corn germ 4.1 10.7 

Corncob 30.1 10.7 

Corn (whole plant) 20.2 32.2 

Corn leaves 24.7 8.9 

Corn shucks 32.8 8. 1 

Fats. — These compounds are sometimes called ether extract 
because they compose those parts of the plant substance that the 
chemist dissolves out with ether. The substances that ether leaches 



NITROGEN FREE COMPOUNDS 



29 



out from plants are mainly fats or oils together with waxes, 
gums, chlorophyll (green coloring matter of plants) and other 
substances. 

Table Showing Fats (Ether Extract) in Plant Substances 



Grain 

Corn 

Oats 

Rye -• 

"Wheat 

Seeds 

Cotton (meats 

Flax 

Peanut kernels 
Sunflower 

(whole). 



Fat 
Per cent. 


Water 
Per cent. 


5-0 


I0.6 


5.0 
i-7 


11. 

11. 6 


2.1 


10.5 


36.6 
33-7 
39-6 


6.2 

9.2 
7-5 


21.2 


8.6 



STRAW 

Oat 

Rye 

Soja bean. 
Wheat ... 



Forage Plants 
(hay) 

Alfalfa 

Alsike clover • . 
Orchard grass . . 



Timothy 




The grains contain more fat than straw or hay. Hay is usual- 
ly higher in fat than straw. A certain class of seeds such as 
cotton seed, peanut, rape, sunflower, and flax seed are important 
for their high oil content. The oils from some of these seeds, 
notably the oils from cotton seed and flax seed, are expressed 
by hydraulic pressure or extracted with some solvent, and sold 
to us as cotton seed oil, cottolene, linseed oil and similar products. 

The Distribution oe Fats (Ether Extract) in Parts oe Corn 



Fat 
Per cent. 

Corn grain 5.0 

Corn bran 5.8 

Corn germ 7.4 

Corn cob ■ o. 5 

Corn (whole plant) • 1.3 

Corn leaves 3.3 

Corn shucks ... o. 9 



Water 
Per cent. 

I0.6 

9-1 

10.7 

IO.7 

32.2 

8.9 

8.1 



There is quite a wide variation in the fat content of the differ- 
ent parts of the corn plant. 

Fats in Animals. — Examples of animal fats are hog lard, mut- 
ton suet, beef tallow and milk fat. The fats of animals are 
different from the fats of plants. 



30 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 
Table Showing the Per Cent, of Fat in Animaes 1 





Calf 


Ox 


Sheep 


Ea mb 
Fat 


Pig 


Degree of 
fatness 


Fat 


Half 
fat 


Fat 


Eean 


Half 
fat 


Fat 


Extra 
Fat 


Eean 


Fat 


Fat per 
cent. • . 

Live wt. 
lbs.... 

Age • 


14.8 

258.8 
9.5 wk 


19.1 

1,232 
4yrs. 


30.1 

1,419 
4yrs. 


18.7 

97.6 
I yr. 


23-5 
105. 1 

3Xys 


35-6 

127.2 
i^yrs 


45-8 
239-4 


28.5 
84.4 


233 
93-9 


42.2 
185 



Animals contain a great deal of fat. Especially is this true 
of fat animals. As previously stated the carbohydrates of plants 
are converted into fats in the animal body. 

Suggestion : An exhibit of vegetable and animal fats, fiber, 
starches, and sugars should prove instructive to the student. 
Purchase a dilute solution of tincture of iodine from the drug store 
and put a drop of this on some broken kernels of corn and 
sliced potatoes. Note the blue color due to the presence of 
starch. A dilute solution of iodine is necessary to procure a 
delicate reaction. 

1 Eawes and Gilbert. 



SECTION VIII. 



COMPOSITION OF FARM ANIMALS. 

In the preceding pages we have become familiar with the 
compounds that are contained in feed stuffs and animal bodies. 
We learned that the plant substances are changed to form body 
tissue, bones, blood, etc. by the animal. Let us now consider the 
animal body composition, or the proportions of the compounds 
in the animal body, to find out the food requirements, the differ- 
ences in young and mature animals, lean and fat animals, species, 
increase and nature of increase during growth and fattening, 
and the relation of the ingredients of plants to the stored up 
materials of the animal. 

We know that the compounds of plants and animals are : 

Compounds of plants Compounds of animals 

Protein Protein 

Fat (ether extract) Fat 

Nitrogen free extract Water 

Crude fiber Ash (mineral matter) 

Water 

Ash (mineral matter) 

Or we may express animal body composition as : 

. . . f Water f . . f 

Animal < ~. ., Ash ,' „ , . 

1 Dry matter < ~ • ,, Protein 

J \ Organic matter j Fats 

Dry Matter. — It is evident that there are many compounds 
somewhat similar in plant and animal life, but there is a great 
difference in the proportions of the compounds in the plant and 
the animal. The dry matter of plants is made up principally of 
carbohydrates and crude fiber, but in the animal carbohydrates 
are present in such small amounts as to be disregarded in stat- 
ing animal body composition and crude fiber is not found in the 
animal body. The dry matter of the animal body is mostly fats. 
The percentages of fats and protein in animals are much greater 
than in most plant substances. 

Composition of Farm Animals. — The most valuable experiments 
that have been conducted on animal body composition are those 



$2 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

of Lawes and Gilbert. These investigators analyzed the whole 
bodies of ten animals of different ages, degrees of fatness and 
species. The results of these investigations are included in the 
table on page 33. 

Water. — As already stated, the animal body contains a great 
deal of water, but perhaps many will be surprised to find that 
there is so much of this constituent in the animal. The water 
is present in the free state in the tissues and blood, and generally 
represents about 50 per cent, of the weight of the animal. Young 
animals contain more water than mature animals, as is shown 
in the water content of the calf and the ox. Active cells in 
animals contain more water than do the older or less active cells 
and this may account for the larger percentage of water found 
in young animals. It is also true that lean animals contain 
more water than fat animals, and the condition or degree of fat- 
ness influences the percentage of water in the animal body. The 
lean sheep contains 13.9 per cent, more water than the fat sheep ; 
the fat sheep, 8.2 per cent, more than the extra fat sheep; the 
half- fat ox, 6 per cent, more than the fat ox; and the lean pig, 
13.8 per cent, more than the fat pig. In fattening, animals store 
up fat, and the fatty substances do not replace the water, but an 
increase in fat in the animal body means an increase in dry mat- 
ter. This accounts for fat animals containing less water than 
lean animals. It also explains why there is more meat in the 
fat animal than in the lean animal, and hence the preference given 
the fat animal at the markets. 

Ash. — There is not a comparatively large amount of mineral 
matter in the animal body. As the animal matures there seems 
to be a decrease in the percentage of mineral matter. The half- 
fat ox contains 0.74 per cent, more ash than the fat ox ; the lean 
sheep, 0.35 per cent, more than the fat sheep ; and the lean pig, 
1.02 per cent, more than the fat pig. There is also a variation of 
mineral matter in the species. The ox contains more mineral 
matter than the sheep and the sheep more than the pig. During 
fattening there is a difference in the increase of mineral matter 
in the different animals ; pigs do not add as great a percentage 
as oxen, and oxen do not add as much as sheep. 



COMPOSITION OF FARM ANIMALS 



33 



Percentage Composition of the Entire Bodies, the Carcasses 
and the Offal of Ten Animals of Different Descrip- 
tions, or in Different Conditions of Maturity 
— Lawes and Gilbert. 1 



Description of animal 



Entire Animal (fasted live wt 

Fat calf 

Half-fat ox , 

Fat ox , 

Fat lamb , 

Lean sheep 

Half-fat old sheep 

Fat sheep 

Extra fat sheep 

Lean pig 

Fat pig 

Means of all 

Carcass 

Fat calf 

Half-fat ox 

Fat ox 

Fat lamb 

Lean sheep 

Half-fat old sheep 

Fat sheep 

Extra fat sheep , 

Lean pig 

Fat pig 

Means of all , 

Offal (excluding contents of 
stomachs and intestines) 

Fat calf 

Half -fat ox 

Fat ox 

Fat lamb 

Lean sheep 

Half-fat old sheep 

Fat sheep 

Extra fat sheep 

Lean pig 

Fat pig 

Means of all 



3.80 
4.66 
3-92 
2.94 

3-16 

3-17 
2.81 
2.90 
2.67 
1.65 
3-17 

4.48 
5-56 
4-56 
3-63 
4-36 
4-13 
3-45 
2.77 

2-57 
1.40 

3-69 



3-4i 
4.05 
3-4o 

2-45 
2.19 
2.72 
2.32 
3-64 
3-07 

2-97 
3.02 



a a 



15-2 
16.6 

H.5 
12.3 
14.8 
14.0 
12.2 
IO.9 

13-7 
10.9 

13-5 

16.6 
17.8 
15.0 
10.9 

H.5 
14.9 

n-5 
9-i 

14.0 
10.5 
13-5 



17.1 
20.6 

17-5 
18.9 
18.0 

17-7 
16.1 
16.8 
14.0 
14.8 
17.2 



14.8 
19.1 
30.1 
28.5 
18.7 
23.5 
35-6 
45-8 

23-3 
42.2 
28.2 

16.6 
22.6 

34-8 

3 6 -9 
23.8 

3i-3 
45-4 
55-1 
28.1 

49-5 
34-4 



14.6 

15-7 
26.3 
20.1 
16. 1 
18.5 
26.4 

34-5 
15.0 
22.8 
21.0 



33-8 
40.3 
48.5 
43-7 
36.7 
40.7 
50.6 
59-6 
39-7 
54-7 
44-9 

37-7 
46.0 

54-4 
51-4 
42.7 
50.3 
60.3 
67.0 

44-7 
61.4 

51.6 



35-1 
40.4 
47.2 
4i-5 
3 6 -3 
38.9 
44.8 

54-9 
32.1 
40.6 
41.2 



63.0 
5i-5 
45-5 
47-8 

57-3 
50.2 

43-4 
35-2 
55-1 
41.3 
49.0 

62.3 

54-o 
45-6 
48.6 

57-3 
49-7 
39-7 
33-o 
55-3 
38.6 
48.4 



64.9 
59-6 
52.8 
58.5 
63-7 
61. 1 

55-2 
45-i 
67.9 

59-4 
58.8 



J&? 

U) S C8 

a' s 



U ' 



3-17 
8.19 

5.98 
8-54 
6.00 

9- 05 
6.02 
5.18 

5-22 

3-97 
6.13 



1 Bui. 22, Office of Experiment Stations. 



34 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Protein is greater in lean animals than in those that are fat. 
The half- fat ox has 2.1 per cent, more protein than the fat ox; 
the lean sheep 2.6 per cent, more than the fat sheep ; and the 
lean pig, 2.8 per cent, more than the fat pig. There is more 
protein in the ox than in the sheep and more in the sheep than in 
the pig. 

Fat. — The fat calf has 14.8 pounds of fat per 100 pounds 
live weight; the half-fat ox 19. 1 pounds, the fat ox 30.1 pounds, 
a difference of 15.3 pounds between the fat calf and the fat ox. 
The lean sheep contains 18.7 pounds of fat per 100 pounds live 
weight, the fat sheep 35.6 pounds and the extra fat sheep 45.8 
pounds, or a difference of 27.1 pounds between the lean and 
extra fat sheep. The lean pig contains 23.3 pounds of fat 
per 100 pounds live weight and the fat pig 42.2 pounds, a 
difference of 18.9 pounds. It is shown that there is 2.5 per 
cent, more fat than protein in the half-fat ox and 15.6 per cent, 
more in the fat ox ; in the lean sheep 3.9 per cent, more and in 
the fat sheep 23.4 per cent, more ; in the lean pig 9.6 per cent, 
more and in the fat pig 31.3 per cent. more. 

Nature of Gain in Fattening. — The findings of Lawes and Gil- 
bert show that an increase in fattening means a great increase in 
the dry matter. The increase of fat is greater than protein. In 
fattening oxen the increase of live weight will approximate i/^ 
per cent, mineral matter, 7 to 8 per cent, of protein, 60 to 65 per 
cent, of fat and 70 to 75 per cent, of dry matter. 

Should oxen be fattened while young and growing the in- 
crease may amount to about 2% per cent, of mineral matter, 
about 10 per cent, of protein and about 50 to 55 per cent, of fat. 
The fattening increase of mature animals amounts to about three 
quarters dry matter and one quarter water, while for young 
growing animals two-thirds dry matter and one-third water 
represents the proportion of increase. 

The increase for sheep amounts to about 2 per cent, mineral 
matter, about 7 per cent, protein, from 65 to 70 per cent, fat, and 
75 to 80 per cent, dry matter. The increase of mineral matter 
of sheep is greater than for mature oxen because of the growth 
of wool. In the final period of excessive fattening of sheep the 



COMPOSITION OF FARM ANIMALS 35 

increase may reach 70 to 75 per cent, of fat and 80 to 85 per 
cent, of dry matter. 

The increase for highly fattened pigs amounts to 6 l / 2 to jy 2 
per cent, protein, 65 to 70 per cent, fat and 70 to 75 per cent, 
dry matter. The increase in mineral matter is so small as to 
be disregarded. If the pig is not highly fattened the increase 
will contain more protein and water and less fat and dry matter. 



SECTION IX. 

PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION. 1 

In the preceding pages we have learned that the animals' food 
constitutes that which they eat and drink. We will now discuss 
the way the animal appropriates this food for nourishing its 
body and the processes necessary to prepare the food for diges- 
tion and assimilation. 

Digestion. — This may be defined as the physiological process 
of preparing food or changing it into soluble substances that 
may be absorbed, or taken into the circulation. 

Assimilation. — After the food is digested it is made use of 
by the cells of the several tissues of the body. The acquiring 
of the digested food for building up the several parts of the 
body is called assimilation. 

Ferments. — In the processes of digestion foods are subjected 
to changes which are destructive and beneficial. Before taking 
up the several steps of digestion let us consider these changes 
'which are caused by ferments. 

A ferment is something which produces fermentation. When 
it comes in contact with any feed stuff, new compounds are 
formed and usually gas is given off. Examples of fermenta- 
tion are ; spoiling of butter, souring of milk, spoiling of fruits 
in jars, spoiling of canned vegetables, and the converting of 
apple juice to cider. 

Ferments not Beneficial to Digestion.— The above changes are 
all due to the action of minute single celled organisms called 
bacteria. These bacteria are present in very large numbers in 
the alimentary canal and attack the food compounds, giving off 
water, marsh gas, carbonic acid, ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen 
and other gases. In other words this kind of fermentation is 
destructive and is always accompanied by a loss of food nutri- 
ents. 

Ferments Beneficial to Digestion. — There is another class of 
ferments which are chemical compounds and have the power 
to change the composition of certain other substances simply by 

1 Adapted from Smith's Manual of Veterinary Physiology and from Dalrymple. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION 



37 



contact. The dissolving of starch, which is insoluble in water, 
by malt is an illustration of this kind of ferment. It is this class 
of ferments upon which the digestion of the food depends. 
These ferments change the insoluble compounds into compounds 
which are readily absorbed into the blood. All the changes of 
food in digestion are probably brought about by the action of 
ferments or dilute acids. Examples of these ferments are : 



Solution 




Ferment 


Medium 


Acts on 


Forms 


Saliva 




Ptyalin 


Alkaline 


Starch 


Maltose 


Gastric 
Juice 


f 

1 


Pepsin and 

Hydrochloric 

Acid 


Acid 


Proteids 


Peptones 




I 


Rennin 


Acid 


Coagulates 


Milk 




r 

i 


Glycocholic 
Acid 


Alkaline 


Emulsifies 


Fats 


Bile 


i 


Taurocholic 










i 


Acid 


Alkaline 


Accelerates 


Action of the 




i 








bowels 


Pancreatic 
Juice 


i 


Trypsin 

Amylopsin 

Steapsin 


Alkaline 
Alkaline 
Alkaline 


Proteids 

Starch 

Emulsifies 


Peptones 

Sugar 

Fats 


Intestinal ] 




Intestinal 


Alkaline 


All carbo- 


Glucose 


Juice 




Juice 




hydrates 
Proteids 
Emulsifies 


Peptones 
Fats 



The several steps of digestion follow : 

i. Prehension, or conveying food to the mouth, differs ac- 
cording to species. The horse uses the lips a great deal in 
gathering food. In feeding in the stall, the horse collects the 
food with the lips and when grazing, cuts off the grass with the 
teeth, drawing the lips back so- as to bite close to the ground. 

The Ox has no teeth in the upper jaw and it seizes food with 
the tongue. In grazing the tongue is extended and curled 
around the grass, which is thus drawn into the mouth and taken 
off by a swinging motion of the head as it passes between the 
incisor teeth (teeth of the lower jaw) and the dental pad (pad 
of the upper jaw). 

The Sheep has no teeth in the upper jaw. It has a divided 
upper lip which permits the use of the teeth and dental pad in 
grazing. Because of this divided lip the sheep can gather very 

1 Ellenberger (Herbivora). 



38 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

short grass and live on pasture where the horse and ox would 
starve. The sheep like the horse uses the lips in gathering food. 

The Hog uses the lower lip and teeth in prehending food. 

Drinking. — In drinking, the animal uses the tongue as a piston 
and pumps up the water to the mouth ; the lips are closed except 
a small opening, which permits the entrance of the liquid, which 
is placed under the liquid. The horse and ox use this method in 
drinking. The horse extends its head while drinking and draws 
the ears forward at each swallow and back between swallows. 

The dog drinks with the tongue — laps water — by curling the 
tongue into the shape of a spoon. 

Animals suck by forming a vacuum in the mouth when the 
lips are closed, increasing the size of the tongue behind and 
diminishing it in front, the dorsum being applied to the roof of 
the mouth. 

2. Mastication or chewing is performed between the molar 
teeth, the large back teeth, or grinders, which reduce and grind 
the food. The lips, cheeks and tongue help to place and hold 
the food for grinding. The movements which the jaws undergo) 
are somewhat different in species of animals. In the horse and 
ox the movement is not only up and down, but lateral. The 
herbivora (horse, sheep, goat and ox) can only masticate (chew) 
on one side at a time ; when this side gets tired the process is 
reversed. The upper jaw of the herbivora is wider than the 
lower. It takes the horse from five to ten minutes to eat one 
pound of corn and fifteen to twenty minutes to* eat one pound of 
hay. In the ox mastication is imperfectly performed to start 
with, but the material is eventually brought back to the mouth 
by the process of rumination and undergoes thorough re-mastica- 
tion. 

3. Insalivation. — While the food is chewed and reduced, small 
ducts and tubes on the sides of the mouth pour out a solution 
called saliva from the salivary glands. This saliva performs 
a chemical action on the food by converting the insoluble starch 
into soluble sugar (maltose), and otherwise prepares these 
carbohydrates for later digestion in the intestines, etc. Ptyalin, 
the ferment of saliva, does not change all the starch in the food 



PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION 39 

to sugar in the mouth, but it acts upon the starch in the 
oesophagus and until it reaches the true stomach when the con- 
version is arrested until the food reaches the small intestine. 
The ferments which change starch to sugar are alkaline and the 
gastric juice being acid, stops this conversion until the food 
reaches the small intestine where the alkaline ferment amylopsin 
completes this change of starch to sugar. 

Colin places the daily secretion of saliva in the horse at 84 
pounds and in the ox at 112 pounds, though the amount will 
depend upon the dryness of the food consumed. Hay absorbs 
more than four times its weight of saliva, oats rather more than 
their own weight, and green fodder half its own weight. 

4. Deglutition or swallowing. This is brought about by means 
of the tongue, some of the muscles of the throat and by the 
wave-like contractions of the oesophagus (gullet), which ends 
at the stomach. 

Some animals prepare their food into round masses, called 
boluses, before swallowing. The boluses of the ox are about 
two or three inches in diameter; those of the horse are one-half 
that size. 

The construction of the oesophagus of the horse is different 
from that of the ox and sheep. It is very narrow and composed 
of a thick, rigid muscular coat at its termination. The cesopha- 
gas of the ox and sheep is coated with a thin muscular coat 
which stretches easily and because of this, these animals can 
swallow bulky material that would choke the horse. 

5. Stomachal Digestion or chymification. This step refers to 
the food materials being converted into chyme, which is a liquid, 
or semi-liquid, mass into which the food in the stomach is 
changed by the action of the gastric juice, aided by the churning 
motion produced by the muscular wall of that organ. When 
in the stomach the food is not only rendered more liquid or 
poultaceous by the gastric juice as a whole, but, by the chemical 
ferment, pepsin, the insoluble protein is changed into soluble 
peptone. 

The stomach of the ox always has food in it ; that of the horse 



40 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



is too small even to hold one feed, so that the first food eaten is 
generally passed to the small intestine before the meal is finished. 

Length of Intestines and Capacity op Stomachs of Farm Animals 1 



Length of intestine 


Capacity of stomach and intestine 


Animal 


si 
a 

u 
M 

a 

u 

V 

> 

< 


a a 

v a 
"£2 

A G 


>> 

a in V 

<D _ C 

& a m 

v 1- - 

,0 •>- c 


Average capacity 


to 
u 

CO 

3 

01 




CO 


Horse 

Small intestine • 
Large intestine- ■ 


Feet 

73-6 
24-5 


3 

[ 


1:12 


Horse 


19.0 

67.4 

137-4 


8-5 
30.2 

61.3 


Small intestine 

Large intestine .... 




223.8 


I OO.O 


Ox 

Small intestine- ■ 
Large intestine •• 


150.9 
36.3 


4.1 
1 


1 :20 


Ox 


266.9 

69.7 

40.1 


70.8 

18 5 

10.7 


Small intestine 

Large intestine .... 

Total capacity 




376.7 


I OO.O 


Sheep 

Small intestine- • 
Large intestine • • 


85-9 
21.4 


4 
1 


1:27 


Sheep 


24.7 

2.1 
I.O 

3-5 
9-5 
5-9 


52.9 
4-5 
2.0 

7-5 
20.4 
12.7 




Small intestine. ■-• 
Large intestine. . . . 




46.7 


100. 


Hog 

Small intestine- • 
Large intestine- - 


60.O 
I7.I 


3-5 
1 


1:14 


Hog 

Large intestine 

Total capacity 


8-5 

9-7 

10.8 


29.2 
33-5 
37-3 




29.0 


100. 



It generally requires from three to four days for the food to 
pass through the digestive tract of animals. 

1 Henry, Feeds and Feeding. 



PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION 



41 



Stomach of the Ox and Sheep. — The stomachs of the horse and 
pig are simple and have one compartment while those of the 
ox and sheep are more complicated and have four compartments 
namely, the first compartment (rumen or paunch) ; the second 
compartment (honeycomb or reticulum) ; the third compartment 




Fig. 1.— Stomach of the horse. 
A— cardiac end of the oesophagus; B— pyloric end and ring— after Fleming. 

(omasum or manyplies) ; and the fourth compartment (abom- 
asum or rennet, or true digestive compartment). This last com- 
partment corresponds to the stomach of the horse and pig. 

Rumination. — In the ruminating animal, such as the ox, sheep 
and goat, which "chew the cud," the food, in a somewhat im- 
perfectly masticated condition, passes into the large first com- 
partment of the stomach, and then into the second. Then by a 
4 



42 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



special arrangement of parts, it is forced back into the oesophagus 
and into the mouth for final preparation by the teeth and the 
saliva. When swallowed a second time, the mouthful of food 
passes into the third compartment and onto the fourth for final 
stomachal digestion. The first three compartments prepare the 




Fig. 2. — Stomach of the ox, seen on its right upper face, the abomasum being depressed. 

A— rumen, left hemisphere; B — rumen, right hemisphere; C — termination of 

the oesophagus; D — reticulum; E — omasum; F— abomasum — after Fleming. 

food for the final digestion which takes place in the fourth com- 
partment. 

6. Intestinal Digestion or chylification. This step has refer- 
ence to the food in the small intestine being converted into chyle, 
which is the nutritive materials, in liquid form, ready for ab- 
sorption into the circulation. After reaching the small intestine, 
the food materials are again acted upon by ferments which have 
a somewhat similar action to those already spoken of in connec- 
tion with the saliva and the gastric juice. These ferments are 
chiefly from the pancreas, or "sweetbread," and are conveyed 
to the intestine, as a part of the pancreatic juice, through the 
pancreatic duct or tube. These ferments alluded to are : 



PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION 43 

(a) Amylopsin, which changes the insoluble starch into soluble 
sugar. 

(b) Trypsin, which converts insoluble protein into soluble 
peptone. 

(c) Steapsin, which emulsifies the fats and oils in the food, 
and renders them more easy of absorption into the circulation. 

7. Absorption. — This is the step by which the nutrient ma- 
terials of the food, in liquid form, are taken from the alimentary 
canal into the circulation to be carried by the blood to all parts 
of the body to nourish the different tissues. And no> food is 
capable of being absorbed until it has first been rendered soluble 
by the action of the different ferments. 

Intestinal absorption takes place through the villi of the small 
intestines into the lacteals — small beginnings of the lymphatic 
system distributed to the small intestine — and through the blood- 
vessels into the venous system. The nutrients absorbed by the 
bloodvessels pass into the portal vein and are conveyed by this 
vein to the liver before entering into the circulation. Hence the 
nutrients either pass through the lymphatic glands to the blood 
or else are conveyed to the liver for further elaboration before 
entering the circulation. 

Fats. — The fats are generally emulsified before being absorbed. 
The lacteals are considered as absorbing all the fats. 

Sugar formed in the bowel reaches the circulation through the 
portal vein and liver. Some of it in the horse perhaps finds its 
way to the lacteals. We will learn in the next section that the 
excess of sugar in the blood is taken up by the liver and con- 
verted into starch (glycogen) and doled out in the form of sugar 
to the blood as required. Mineral salts in solution enter the 
blood as do the sugars. 

Proteids. — As already stated the proteids are converted into 
peptones before being absorbed. It is said that the peptones are 
absorbed by the bloodvessels of the villi, and conveyed by the 
portal vein to the liver. 

8. Circulation. — This step is accomplished by the blood in the 
arteries carrying the nutritive materials, absorbed from the food, 
to all parts of the body. 



44 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 

9. Assimilation. — This step is undertaken by the tissue-cells 
themselves, selecting from the blood, or lymph, the nutritive 
elements required for their maintenance and development. 

10. Defecation. — This final step refers to the casting off from 
the body, in the form of excrementitious matter (manure), the 
inert indigestible parts of the food. Besides containing the un- 
digested food, small portions of the residues of the juices em- 
ployed in digestion and other waste matters are present. 

Suggestion : Require the students to make a schematic draw- 
ing showing the passage of the food, the ferments and their 
properties, and the absorption of the nutrients, in the ruminant. 



SECTION X. 



THE CIRCULATION OF DIGESTED FOOD. 1 

The Blood. — After the food is digested it is absorbed and 
enters into the blood. The special functions of the blood are to 
nourish all the tissues of the body, and thus aid their growth 
and repair; to furnish material for the purpose of the body 
secretions, to supply the organism with oxygen without which 
life is impossible, and finally to convey from the tissues the 
products of their activity. 

To enable all this to be carried out the blood is constantly in 
circulation, is rapidly renewed, is instantaneously purified in the 
lungs, and by means of certain channels it is placed directly in 
communication with the nourishing fluid absorbed from the 
intestines by which it is being constantly repaired. 

Physical Characters of the Blood. — The color of the blood 
varies, depending upon whether it is drawn from an artery or a 
vein ; in the former it is of bright scarlet color, while in the 
latter it is purplish red. Blood examined under the microscope 
is found to consist of an enormous number of red disk shaped 
bodies termed corpuscles floating in an almost clear liquid called 
plasma. These corpuscles are both red and white; the former 
are the more numerous and the latter the larger. These red 
corpuscles contain a pigment called hcemoglobin which gives 
blood its scarlet color. The scarlet or purplish color of the 
blood depends upon the amount of oxygen with which the 
haemoglobin is combined. When haemoglobin is charged with 
oxygen it is called oxy -hcemoglobin. 

Arterial and Venous Blood. — Arterial blood contains more oxy- 
gen and less carbonic acid than venous blood. The dark color 
of venous blood is not due to the greater amount of carbonic 
acid it contains, but to the diminution of oxygen in the red blood 
cells. 

Salts of the blood are divided between the plasma and the 
corpuscles. Sodium chloride is the most abundant salt of the 
blood, potassium chloride and sodium carbonate follow, and 

1 Adapted from Smith's Manual of Veterinary Physiology. 



46 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

lastly phosphates of calcium, magnesium and sodium. Iron is 
found in the haemoglobin. 

Chemical Composition of Blood. — The composition of the blood 
as given is from various investigators. 

100 parts venous blood of the horse contain: 

Per cent. 

Corpuscles 32.6 

Plasma • • • 67.4 

The corpuscles contain : 

Water 56.5 

Solid matter .. . 43.5 

The plasma contains : 

Water 90.8 

Solids • 9. 2 

The solids consist of : 

Fibrin .4 

Albumin 7.5 

Fats • .1 

Extractives .4 

Soluble salts ■ .6 

Insoluble salts .2 

Average blood contains : 

The plasma — 

Water 90. o 

Proteids 8. to 9. 

Fats .1 

Fibrin .2 to .4 

Extractives .4 

Salts .8 

The corpuscles — 

Water 56.0 

Solids 43.0 

consisting of 90 per cent, haemoglobin and 8 per cent, 
proteids 

Salts 1.0 

Taking the blood as a whole the following will approximately 
represent its composition. 

Per cent. Per cent. 

Water 80. , „ , , . 

j Haemoglobin 10. 

Solids 20. J Proteids 8. 

Salts 2. 



CIRCULATION OF DIGESTED FOOD 47 

Proteids constitute about 80 per cent, of the dry matter of the 
blood (haemoglobin contains proteids). Fats and sugar are 
also present but generally in small amounts in the plasma. 

The Heart. — The blood in the body has to be kept in constant 
motion, so that the tissues which are depending upon it for their 
vitality may be continually supplied, and also in order that the 
impure fluid resulting from these changes, may be rapidly and 
effectually conveyed to those organs where its purification is 
carried out. 

Compartments of the Heart. — The heart is the organ which 
pumps the blood over the body, not only distributing it to the 
tissues but forcing it on from these back to the heart again to 
be prepared for redistribution. It may be described as a hollow 
muscle divided into two compartments, usually described as 
right and left, but in quadrupeds really anterior and posterior. 
each compartment being capable of division into an upper or 
auricle, and a lower or ventricle. Opening into the auricles are 
large veins which convey the blood back to the heart; from the 
ventricles other vessels, arteries, take their origin for the con- 
veyance of blood from the heart; the two cavities are separated by 
a valvular arrangement. 

Pure and Impure Blood. — Into the right heart the whole of the 
impure or venous blood in the body is brought for the purpose 
of being purified in the lungs ; into the left heart the arterial or 
purified blood is brought back from the lungs for distribution 
over the body. 

How the Nutrients Enter the Blood. — The absorbed nutritive 
materials reach the blood when it is returning to the heart. The 
blood is pumped out through the cavities into the arteries to> be 
sent to all parts of the body, to furnish nourishment for build- 
ing up the tissues. 

Respiration. — The blood not only performs the function of 
supplying nutrient to the tissues, but it also takes up a great 
deal of the waste matter of the body. This elimination of waste 
matter by the blood is accomplished to some extent by means of 
die lungs. The blood is pumped to the lungs and renewed by 
taking on a fresh supply of oxygen from the inspired air, which 



48 



ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



is necessary for the life of the tissues. Some of the waste 
matters such as carbonic acicl gas, water and organic sub- 
stances, are passed off by the blood through the lungs in the 
expired air. 

The changes the air undergoes in the lungs, on a water free 
basis, are as follows : 



Oxygen 
Per cent. 



Inspired air 20.96 

Expired air. 16.00 



Nitrogen 
Per cent. 

79.OI 

79.60 



Carbonic acid 
Per cent. 

4.40 



The expired air contains about 5 per cent, less oxygen and 4 
per cent, more carbonic acid than inspired air. Considerable 
water is also given off with the expired air. 

The following table gives an idea of the extent of the elimina- 
tion of wastes through the lungs of farm animals. 

Amounts of Oxygen Consumed and Carbonic Acid Produced 
by Animals. 1 



Live wt. 
lbs. 



Anit. of air in- 
spired in 24 hrs. 
cu. ft. 



Anit. of oxygen 

consumed in 24 

hrs., cu. ft 



Amt. of carbonic 

acid produced in 

24 hrs., cu. ft. 



Horse 
Cow. • 
Pig .. 
Sheep 



990 

990 

165 

99 



3373 

2782 

1216 

720 



150 

122 
54-7 
32.4 



151 
122.3 

55-1 
22.6 



The Kidneys may be regarded as the filters of the body, and 
one of the channels by which waste and poisonous substances are 
removed. or filtered from the blood, and passed off from the body 
in the urine. The amount of blood passing to the kidney is 
quite considerable ; it has been calculated that in 24 hours, 146 
pounds of blood will pass through the kidneys of a dog weigh- 
ing 66 pounds. 

The Composition of Urine depends upon the class of animal; in 
all herbivora, with certain minor differences, the urinary secre- 
tion is much the same. 

1 Boussingault. 



CIRCULATION OF DIGESTED FOOD 49 

Composition of Urine of Sheep. 1 

Per cent. 

Water 86.48 

Organic matter 7.96 

Inorganic matter 5.56 

The organic matter contained : 

Urea 2.21 

Hippuric acid 3. 24 

Ammonia .02 

Other organic substances 2.07 

Carbonic acid • • • .42 

Total 7.96 

The inorganic matter contained : 

Chlorine 1.05 

Potassium chloride 1.84 

Potassium 2.08 

Lime .07 

Magnesia .20 

Phosphoric acid .01 

Sulphuric acid .24 

Silica .07 

Total 5.56 

There is a considerable portion of nitrogenous matter in the 
urine which is present in the urea and hippuric acid. It must 
be understood that the composition of the urine is not always 
constant and it varies with the diet. 

The Liver stores up an animal starch (carbohydrate) called 
glycogen. This is absorbed from the intestine as sugar and 
changed to starch. It is gradually passed out to the blood as 
sugar when required. The liver regulates the amount of sugar 
which should pass into the blood, so much and no more is ad- 
mitted, the amount varying from 0.05 to 1.5 per cent. 

The Skin gives off water and other substances by means of 
the sweat glands. Sweat exists in two forms : viz., the in- 
visible vapor which is always rising from the surface of the skin, 
and distinguished as the "insensible perspiration," and the vis- 
ible material, which is termed "sweat." The insensible per- 

1 Tereg. 



50 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



spiration of a horse is probably about 14 pounds of water per 
24 hours. 

Composition of Horses' Sweat. 





Per cent. 






Per cent. 


Water 


94-3776 


f 


Serum albumin 


.1049 


Organic matter 


.5288 


1 


Serum globulin 
Fat 


•3273 
.0020 






r 

1 
1 


Ch'.orine 

Lime 

Magnesia 


•33°° 
.0940 

.2195 


Ash 


5-0936 


1 


Phosphoric acid 
Sulphuric acid 
Soda 


traces 
traces 
.8265 






1 


Potash 


1. 2135 



The mineral matter in sweat is very high and exists princi- 
pally as soda and potash. The nitrogenous matters (albumin and 
globulin) make up most of the organic matter. It will be ob- 
served that the mineral matter exceeds the organic matter ; in 
horses which have sweated freely the hair mats, due to the nitrog- 
enous substance, albumin, and is often covered with salty matter 
due probably to the salts excreted. The loss of albumin perhaps 
accounts for the weakening effect in animals produced by sweat- 
ing freely. 

Suggestion : Make a schematic drawing showing the entrance 
of the nutrients into the blood, the circulation of the blood and 
its functions. 



SECTION XI. 

CONDITIONS GOVERNING DIGESTIBILITY. 

There are several factors which govern the digestibility of 
foods and brief mention will be given of some of the more im- 
portant factors. The data submitted in this section are the 
results of investigations conducted by Europeans and Ameri- 
cans, and are of value in clearing up some points on feeding. 

Quantity of Food. — It is said by some investigators that the 
quantity given, within certain limits, does not affect the digesti- 
bility of the same fodder. That is if the amount of fodder be 
great or small, provided the ration does not exceed the capacity 
of the animal, the fodder is digested in the same proportions. 
Other investigators have found that the larger the ration the 
less is the digestibility. It is probable that when an animal re- 
ceives a large amount of food the digestibility is less because 
the ferments which act upon food are less concentrated than 
with a small ration. 

Palatability. — The animal like man enjoys a food that is 
palatable (tastes g'ood). Experiments have proven that palata- 
bility favors digestion by exciting the flow of gastric juice and 
by producing favorable action of the digestive organs. When a 
food is relished, more of it is eaten. 

Chemical Composition. — The chemical composition of a food 
influences its digestibility. The same food grown on different 
soils, or fertilized differently, or grown at different seasons is 
changed in composition and digestibility. 

Dry and Green Food. — It has been learned that dry fodder and 
green fodder are equally digestible when the dry fodder is care- 
fully cured and saved. If fermentation sets in, or some of the 
leaves or other parts of the fodder are lost, of course the digesti- 
bility is lessened. 

In hay-making, there are often losses which decrease the di- 
gestibility of the dried fodders. These losses may not be due 
to drying but to fermentation, leaching, decreases in soluble 
materials, and breaking off of the delicate parts. 



52 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Effect of Storage on Food. — The method of storing coarse fod- 
ders influences their digestibility. Experiments on hay when 
fed after recent harvesting showed 62 per cent, of its protein 
digestible, and three months later 54 per cent, of its protein was 
digested. The digestibility of the nitrogen free extract and 
crude fiber were practically the same in both trials. Other ex- 
periments have proven that there are losses in digestible protein 
in storing. There are also losses from breaking off of the dry, 
tender portions which generally contain the most protein. 

There seems to be differences of opinion on the effect of stor- 
ing fodders in the silo. Some experiments have been conducted 
that showed losses of digestibility in preserving fodders in this 
way and many believe that field cured corn fodder is less di- 
gestible than silage from the same corn. Of course there are 
many factors to be considered in determining this point. The 
method of field curing, the weather, handling, and thoroughness 
of curing and after preservation must be considered. In the 
silo the changes from fermentation and the neglect in siloing, 
sometimes cause losses. 

Stage of Development. — The stage of growth of a plant effects 
its digestibility. Generally young plants are more digestible 
than the more mature, because the fiber is more tender. The 
protein of green clover before flowering is more digestible than 
that of mature clover. Hay cut at maturity is higher in 
fiber than the younger plant and less of it is digested. 

The corn plant seems to be an exception to the rule. At 
maturity when the ears are fully ripe, there are more digestible 
nutrients than if cut before the ears are full grown. This is 
perhaps due to the increase of starch in the kernels of corn. 

Preparation of Food. — It was formerly accepted that foods 
treated by cooking, steaming, scalding, roasting and fermenting 
were greatly improved, and rendered more digestible and favor- 
able for the production of flesh, milk, etc. A great deal of 
attention was given to this system of feeding which entailed 
much expense, until experiments by Europeans and Americans 
proved conclusively that the digestibility of already palatable 
foods was lessened by such procedure. At the present time it 



CONDITIONS GOVERNING DIGESTIBILITY 



53 



is unusual to find feeders preparing rations by cooking, steam- 
ing, scalding, roasting and fermenting. The investigators found 
that the protein digestibility was most effected and as this was 
the most expensive nutrient the practice was discontinued. Some- 
times scalding a food improves its palatability and thus serves 
to increase its consumption. 

Grinding has considerable influence on the digestibility of 
certain foods when fed to certain animals. The smaller and 




Fig. 3.— A coach horse — after Good. 



harder the seed the more necessary it is to grind it. Many of 
our seeds such as flax, barley, peas, rye, sorghum, millet, etc., 
are so small as to escape mastication, or too hard, or too oily for 
the digestive fluids to penetrate and act upon. The harder the 



54 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

outer covering of the grain the more benefit is derived by grind- 
ing. 

Imperfect mastication is greater with the horse or mule 
than with ruminating animals and therefore grinding is more 
necessary on certain foods when fed to the horse or mule. The 
digestibility of corn, wheat and oats is increased by grinding 
when fed to horses or mules. Grain when fed to calves should 
be ground, and grinding improves the digestibility of grain for 
swine. It is more necessary to grind the grain fed to the horse 
or mule when at work than when idle, because a working horse 
or mule has less time to properly masticate food. Hay, fodders, 
etc. are more completely consumed when ground. The cob 
can be utilized to advantage when the whole ear (corn and cob) 
is finely ground. Experiments have shown that corn and cob 
meal of this character is of about equal feeding value to pure 
corn meal. The bulkiness of corn and cob meal permits of 
thorough action of the digestive fluids. 

Species of Animal.— With oxen, cows, sheep and goats the di- 
gestibility of forage is about the same. Sheep digest clover hay 
better than oxen, and oxen digest hay better than sheep. Horses 
and mules digest less hay than the ruminating animals, per- 
haps because of poorer mastication. The fat, carbohydrates 
and particularly the crude fiber, are digested in smaller amounts 
by horses and mules than ruminants. Experiments show that 
20-25 Per cent, less nitrogen free extract of hay is digested by 
the horse than by ruminants. The digestibility of grain is 
about the same with the horse and ruminants. 

Individuality and Age.— Defective teeth, differences in age, 
and weakened digestion sometimes cause differences in digesti- 
bility with animals of the same species. Some claim that animals 
of the same species may show differences in digestive power 
ranging from 2 to 4 per cent. Experiments conducted on sheep 
and steers have shown variations in digestibility. Sometimes 
one animal gave the highest digestibility and at other times 
another. Young and old animals of the same species seem to 
digest equal amounts of food. 



CONDITIONS GOVERNING DIGESTIBILITY 55 

Work according to Wolff has no influence in causing a larger 
proportion of food substances to be digested. Excessive work 
perhaps causes a slight decrease in the amount digested. 

Combinations. — Investigations show that the combination of 
the nutrients of a food exerts an influence on its digestibility. 
Corn added to hay produces no effect on the digestion of hay 
unless it is added in large amounts when it decreases the di- 
gestibility. Large amounts of carbohydrates tend to reduce the 
digestibility of the protein and crude fiber in hay. This de- 
crease is not great until the carbohydrates amount to 25 to 30 
per cent, of the total dry matter in the hay, although it is much 
larger if straw is included in the diet. This depression of di- 
gestibility can be removed by adding more protein. It is be- 
lieved that if carbohydrates form 10 per cent, of the dry matter 
of a ration, or when roots or potatoes constitute more than 15 
per cent, of the dry matter, the amount of digested substance 
decreases and becomes greater as the carbohydrates are in- 
creased. From these observations it is apparent that the ex- 
cessive use of roots or tubers with hay or fodder, will de- 
crease the digestibility of the ration unless the protein is in- 
creased. Experiments indicate that albuminoids and oil added 
to a ration do not increase the amount digested or do not alter 
the digestibility. 

An Addition of Salt may improve the flavor of a food and thus 
cause an increase in the amount of food eaten, but it does not 
seem to be effectual in causing a larger per cent, of digestibility. 

Time of Watering and Frequency of Feeding. — Experiments 
have been run to ascertain the effect of the time of watering, 
amount of water and frequency O'f feeding with the results that 
no alteration in digestion took place. It should be understood 
however that the ruminants should be fed and watered at least 
twice a day and horses and mules three times a day for the best 
results. 



SECTION XII. 



THE NUTRIENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS. 

The previous sections explained the composition of plants and 
animals, how food is digested, absorbed and distributed over the 
body, but we must now learn about the nutrients and their 
functions. 

The Nutrients. — Protein, fats, nitrogen free extract, crude fiber, 
water and ash serve to supply the needs of animals. Nitrogen 
free extract and crude fiber are classed as carbohydrates and the 
digestible amounts in both of these plant substances are regarded 
as of equal value and supply the same needs in the animal body. 
Water can be supplied in a cheaper form than in feed stuffs. 
Protein, fats, carbohydrates and ash therefore are considered as 
the nutrients. The nutrients and examples of each are: 

{Albumen (white of egg), legumin, casein of milk, washed 
lean meat, fibrin of blood, gluten of flour, gelatinoids 
(gelatin), amides, globulin, peptones, etc. 

! Linseed oil, cotton seed oil, sunflower seed oil, rape seed 
oil, olive oil, peanut oil, fat of milk, hog lard, mutton 
suet, beef tallow, fish oil, etc. 

i Starches, sugars (milk sugar, grape sugar, cane sugar, 
beet sugar, and glucose), glycogen, gums, dextrins, 
fiber, etc. 

! Sodium carbonate (baking powder), sodium chloride (table 
salt), carbonate of lime (limestone), magnesium sulphate 
(Epsom salts), sodium sulphate (Glauber's salts), etc. 

Purpose of the Nutrients. — We want to know the purposes 
which the nutritive elements serve. In a general way it may be 
said that animals use food in two ways : i . To build up the 
body and repair broken down tissues. 2. To produce energy 
to keep warm and to supply that which gives locomotion or 
movement to the animal body. 

Functions of Ash or Mineral Matter. — All the bones which 
make up the framework of the animal body contain ash or 
mineral compounds, and the blood, tissues and the digestive 
fluids require these substances but to a less extent. Without 
lime and phosphoric acid it would be impossible to build up the 
bones to support the animal body. Soda and chlorine are re- 



THE NUTRIENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS $7 

quired in the processes of digestion in the digestive juices and 
secretions. Iron is a necessary constituent of the blood. Nature 
has provided for the very young animal by furnishing the 
necessary mineral elements in milk. The young animal must 
have mineral compounds to reach full development and the 
mature animal requires ash for maintaining body functions. It 
is fortunate that nature has supplied sufficient mineral matter 
in most of the feeds that animals live on in this country. It is 
only necessary to furnish mineral compounds when a diet con- 
sisting chiefly of grain (such as corn) or prepared foods con- 
sisting of parts of grain are fed. Animals cannot live without 
mineral compounds. Such substances as common salt, wood 
ashes, and precipitated chalk are sometimes fed in conjunction 
with other feeds to supply the needs of growing animals. 

Functions of Protein. — Protein as derived from plant sub- 
stances is the main constituent of muscles, horn, hoof, hair, 
ligaments, the tissues of the organs used in digestive processes, 
and the working parts of the animal body. The protein com- 
pounds are in reality the flesh formers. Protein bodies repair 
the broken down tissues, help form blood, and milk. When 
animals are fed protein in the right proportions they possess 
vigor and look smart and lively. Without protein the animal 
cannot live. Sometimes protein can be made to take the place 
of fats and carbohydrates, but such substitution is not practicable, 
as protein generally costs more than fats and carbohydrates. 
Protein hardly ever performs the functions of fats and carbo- 
hydrates unless these latter nutrients are lacking in animal's 
food. The heat producing power of protein is about i% times 
that of carbohydrates. As a heat producer fat is 2.25 times 
greater than protein. The amount of body fat that protein pro- 
duces is equal to one-half that which the fat of plant substance 
produces. 

Functions of Fats and Carbohydrates. — These nutrients per- 
form the same functions and supply the fuel for the animal body. 
They are heat producers and furnish the substances that keep 
the animal warm. The fats and the carbohydrates also produce 
fat in the animal body. The fats are not always changed in 
5 



58 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

forming- fatty tissue but the carbohydrates are transformed into 
fats before being stored as such. Therefore in the animal body 
we have four classes of compounds namely, protein, fats, water 
and ash. As an energy and heat producer, fats have a greater 
value than carbohydrates. Fats are considered as being 2.25 
times more valuable than carbohydrates in this respect. In other 
words, one pound of fat is worth 2.25 times as much as one 
pound of carbohydrates for animal fuel. One pound of fat is 
worth about two pounds of protein and one and three quarters 
pounds of carbohydrates in the production of animal fat. Fats 
and carbohydrates cannot form body tissue. 

Summary. — The nutrients of the animal body serve the same 
purposes as furnished by the nutrients of feeds. When there 
is a deficiency in a diet, the protein and fats, or the fats of the 
animal body are used to help keep the animal going. A suffi- 
ciency of carbohydrates and fats in a ration prevents protein 
from being drawn upon, but a deficiency of carbohydrates and 
fats causes protein from the flesh of the animal to be used. 
Hence it is necessary that animals receive sufficient carbohydrates 
and fats to insure development and ample protection of the body. 

Classification of the Functions of the Nutrients. 1 

( Supplies materials for the bones, hard parts and framework 
Ash -I of the body. Helps build up the blood, tissues, secretions 

( and digestive fluids. A necessity for all animal life. 

f The flesh formers. Substances for the making of lean 
. j meat, muscles, skin, ligaments, horn, hair and milk. 

Frotein \ Sometimes used as fuel to give warmth and energy when 

[ there are deficiencies of fats and carbohydrates. 

f Furnish fuel to keep the animal warm. Help to produce 
F \ energy. Aid in the production of fatty tissue. 

f Supply the fuel to keep the animal warm and to produce 
Carbohydrates < energy . Are transformed into fats for the production of 
( fatty tissue. 

1 The idea and some of the data in this classification came from Bui. 106, North Caro- 
lina Experiment Station. 



the; nutrients and their functions 59 

Comparison of Protein, Fat and Carbohydrates 
i pound protein = 1% pounds carbohydrates for producing heat, 
i pound fat = 2.25 pounds carbohydrates for producing heat. 
1 pound fat = 1^4 pounds carbohydrates for producing animal fat. 
1 pound fat = 2 pounds protein for producing animal fat. 
Protein can perform the offices of fats and carbohydrates. 
Fats and carbohydrates cannot form body tissue (nitrogenous substances). 

Suggestion: — Have the class examine some live animal and 
give the distribution of the nutrients and their functions. 



SECTION XIII. 



FEED STUFFS AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY. 

We all know that when work is performed a certain amount 
of effort is put forth. This effort is proportional to the work 
done and energy is expended in the performance of the same. 
What is true for man in this respect applies for animals. The 
animal may be likened to the steam engine. It moves itself and 
also is capable of moving other things. The animal differs from 
the steam engine in that it never stops; it is continually at work. 
No matter how quiet the animal, the blood is pumped by the 
heart to all parts of the body, inspiration and expiration of air 
to and from the lungs is continuous, and the processes of diges- 
tion are being performed, so that energy is always being ex- 
pended by the animal. 

Sources and Uses of Energy. — In order that the animal may 
breathe, walk, run, trot, pull a load, plow, masticate, digest food, 
etc., it must be furnished with materials to enable it to perform 
these functions. The source of these substances is obtained 
from the compounds which the plant stores up as latent heat and 
is transformed by the animal into fats and flesh. We know that 
an animal deprived of plant substances soon wastes away. The 
animal therefore in performing work of any kind uses the sub- 
stances, fats and flesh. The fats are used to furnish the fuel 
and the flesh to repair the tissues. Energy in animals is mani- 
fested by muscular movements. It is generally derived from 
the non-nitrogenous substances. The muscles are moved by the 
action of the non-nitrogenous substances. Let us represent the 
sources and uses of energy as follows : 

Food compounds Animal compounds Functions 

Carbohydrates and fats changed to Animal fats Used as fuel 

Protein, water and ash changed to Flesh, fluids and the Used as repair 

body framework materials 

Use of Compounds Furnishing Energy. — As previously men- 
tioned the carbohydrates and fats comprise the fuel portion of 
the food. Should these compounds be fed in amounts just suffi- 
cient to do the work required, no excess will be stored in the 



FEED STUFFS AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY 6 1 

body. Should they be fed in excess they are stored as fatty 
tissue (beef tallow, hog lard, mutton suet, etc.) with which we 
are all familiar. When protein is fed in larger quantities than 
needed for the building up and repair of the body tissues it may 
be used for fuel purposes. The use of protein as fuel is ex- 
travagant because it costs much more than carbohydrates and 
fats. The fat of the body is its storehouse of fuel. Animals 
fed insufficiently draw on their stored up fats and be- 
come lean. In the production of milk, growth, development 
of the young, etc., fuel and repair materials are reserved when 
the nutrients supplied are sufficient. 

Potential and Kinetic Energy. — There are two kinds of energy 
manifested in the animal, namely, potential and kinetic. Poten- 
tial energy is that which is in the food and stored up in the 
animal body. It may be likened to a bent spring. Kinetic 
energy is represented in the animal by work and heat. It is the 
energy represented in moving bodies and may be likened to the 
swinging of a pendulum. 

Examples of Potential and Kinetic Energy in the Animal 1 

Food { 

Feces (manure) 

S nne - .• \ Potential Energy 

Perspiration ) bJ 

Combustible gases I 

Storage of tissue [ 



Work f 

Heat \ 



Kinetic Energy 



Measurement of Energy. — There is a great variation in the 
content of nutrients of the several feeds. In order to deter- 
mine the amount of energy or heat units in feeds an apparatus 
is used called the calorimeter. This apparatus is so arranged 
that the heat given off by burning a feed completely is absorbed 
by water and the heat units measured or calculated. The prin- 
cipal units used in measuring heat are the small calorie (c), large 
Calorie (C) and the therm (t). The large Calorie (written 
with a capital C) is the amount of heat required to raise the 
temperature of I kilogram (2.2 lbs.) of water 1 degree Centi- 
grade, or about 4 pounds of water 1 degree Fahrenheit. The 

1 Arrnsby, Principles of Animal Nutrition. 



62 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND EEEDING 



large Calorie is equal to 1,000 small calories (written with a 
small c). The Calorie is used more than calorie because of the 
smaller figures necessary. Armsby of the Pennsylvania Experi- 
ment Station, says : "For expressing the heat values of feeding 
stuffs, it is convenient to use a unit one thousand times as large 
as the Calorie, known as the therm, which accordingly is the 
amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1,000 kilo- 
grams (2204.6 lbs.) of water 1 degree Centigrade, or of 4,000 
pounds of water 1 degree Fahrenheit. The heat value of corn 
or any other fuel, as thus measured and expressed, would show 
its value as fuel to be burned to make steam." 

These values are commonly called heats of combustion. 
The Energy Values of Some Feed stuffs in Therms 1 



Feed stuffs 



Amount 
pounds 



Timothy hay ] 100 

Clover hay I 100 

Oat straw 100 

Wheat straw 100 

Corn meal 100 

Oats ■•••.... 100 

Wheat bran 100 

Linseed meal ! 100 



Moisture 
Per cent. 



15 
15 
15 
15 
L5 
15 
15 
15 



I75-I 
173-2 
171. o 
J7I.4 
170.9 
180.6 

175-5 
196.7 



Utilization of Energy. — It is no doubt surprising to you that 
wheat bran is not a great deal higher in chemical energy than 
timothy hay; and corn meal than oat straw. Armsby says in 
part: "Two causes combine to affect the utilization of the 
chemical energy contained in feed stuffs. First, more or less 
of the feed escapes from the body unburned. Much of even 
the best feeding stuff escapes digestion and is excreted in the 
dung, carrying with it a corresponding quantity of the chemi- 
cal energy of the feed. More or less incompletely burned ma- 
terial is also contained in the urine, while ruminants, and to a 
certain extent horses, also give off combustible gases, arising 
from fermentations in the digestive tract. Thus about 22 per 
cent, of the chemical energy of corn meal and fully 55 per cent, 
of that of average hay has been found to escape in these ways. 

1 Farmers' Bui. 346, U. S. D. A. 



FEED STUFFS AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY 63 

"Second, as already pointed out, the animal body has to ex- 
tract its real fuel material from its feed, separating it from the 
relatively large proportion of useless material which it excretes. 
To effect this separation requires work and consumes energy, 
and this energy, of course is not available for other purposes. 
Moreover, when the animal eats more feed than is required sim- 
ply to furnish energy to run its machinery and hence is able to 
produce meat or milk, the process of converting the food into 
suitable forms to store up in the body seems to require a further 
expenditure of energy. 

"Total Chemical Energy not Always an Indication. — It is not, 
then, the total chemical energy contained in a feeding stuff 
which measures its value as fuel material to the body, but what re- 
mains after deducting the losses in the unburned materials of the 
excreta and the energy expended in extracting the real fuel mate- 
rials from the feed and transforming them into substances which 
the body can use or store up. For example, while 100 pounds 
of corn meal contain, as stated, about 170.9 therms of chemical 
energy, only about 88.8 therms remain, after all these deductions 
have been made, to represent the actual value of the corn meal 
as a source of energy to the organism." 

Respiration Calorimeter or Respiration Apparatus. — The chemi- 
cal energy of a feed stuff is easy to determine but in order to 
find out the amount utilized or the production value, the respira- 
tion calorimeter or respiration apparatus is used which is an air- 
tight chamber in which man or animal is kept and food and air 
introduced. To determine the production value or the energy 
utilized, accurate data must be kept on the income and outgo of 
all materials. The income includes the food, composition and 
amount fed. The outgo includes feces, urine, perspiration, com- 
bustible gases, storage of tissue, heat and work. One must rea- 
lize that an apparatus capable of measuring all these things (solids 
and gases) is complicated and expensive. To secure the energy val- 
ues of feeds require considerable work and the expenditure of 
much time. 

The respiration apparatus may be used for man as well as 
for animals. 



64 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 
The Respiration Apparatus Measures the 

Income Outgo 

Food Feces 

Urine 

Perspiration 
Combustible gases 
Storage of tissue 
Work 
Heat 



SECTION XIV. 



NATURAL STOCK FEEDS. 

The natural feeds used for feeding stock include forage crops, 
root and tuber crops, and grains and seeds. 

Forage Crops. — Under this head come green and cured legu- 
minous plants, the grasses and the grain plants. 

Leguminous Plants. — These plants differ from the grasses and 




Fig. 4. — Cowpeas, a good leguminous crop. 



the grain plants in that they contain more nitrogenous substances, 
namely, protein. Alfalfa, clovers, vetches, cowpeas and soja 
bean are some of our leguminous plants. 



66 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 



Composition of Some Leguminous Plants 



Name of legume 



Fresh or Green 

Alfalfa 

Alsike clover 

Cowpea 

Crimson clover. . 
Red clover. 
Soja bean 

Hay 

Alfalfa 

Alsike clover. . . 

Cowpea 

Crimson clover • 

Red clover . . 

Soja bean 



Composition in percent. 



71.8 
74-8 
83.6 

80.9 
70.S 
75-i 

8.4 

9-7 

11. 9 

9.6 

15-3 

n-3 



4.8 

3-9 

2.4 

3- 1 
4-4 
4.0 

14-3 
12.8 

14.4 

15-2 

12.3 
15-4 



Fat 
(ether 
extract) 



I.O 

0.9 
0.4 
0.7 
I.I 
I.O 

2.2 
2.9 

2-5 

2.8 

3-3 
5-2 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 



12.3 
I I.O 

7-i 
8.4 

13-5 
10.6 



42.7 
40.7 
41.2 
36.6 
38.1 
38.6 



Fiber 



7-4 
7-4 
4.8 
5-2 
8.1 
6.7 

25.0 
25.6 

21.5 
27.2 
24.8 
22.3 



Ash 



2.7 
2.0 

t-7 
i-7 
2.1 
2.6 



7-4 
8-3 
8.4 
8.6 
6.2 
7.2 



Characteristics of Legumes. — The leguminous plants carry- 
higher protein and ash contents, lower carbohydrates and fiber, 
and the fat is about the same as in grasses and grain plants. 
The grasses and grain plants tend to exhaust the soil of its 
fertility while the legumes have the habit of fixing nitrogen (the 
most fugitive and costly fertilizer constituent) in the soil. Like 
the other two classes of forage crops they use up phosphoric 
acid, potash and lime. 

Grasses. — The principal grasses used for feeding are timothy, 
orchard, crab, red top, Johnson, Kentucky blue (June), and 
Bermuda. 

The table on page 67 she vvs us that the grasses are much lower 
in protein than the legumes. 

Grain Plants. — Corn, oats, barley, rye, rice and wheat are some 
examples of this class. 

Husbanding of Forage Crops. — Forage crops are not always 
fed in their natural green state but are sometimes husbanded in 
other ways. For instance, our leguminous plants, grasses and 
grain plants are often dried in the field before harvesting. 
This field curing is done to permit the farmer to save these crops 
and feed at his pleasure. 



NATURAL STOCK FEEDS 



6 7 



Composition ok Some Grasses 



Name of grass 



Composition in per cent. 



Fat 

(ether 
extract) 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 



Fiber 



Fresh or Green 
Kentucky blue • 

Orchard 

Red top 

Timothy 

Hay 

Bermuda 

Kentucky blue • 

Orchard 

Red top 

Timothy 



65.1 
73-° 
653 
61.6 



21.2 

9-9 

8.9 

13.2 

10.6 



4.1 
2.6 
2.8 
3-i 

7-8 
8.1 
7-9 
5-9 
10.2 



i-3 
0.9 
0.9 

1.2 



3-9 
2.6 

i-9 
2-5 
2.2 



17.6 

17.7 
20.2 

37-8 
41.0 

47-5 
45-o 
48.3 



9-i 

8.2 

11. o 
11.8 



23.0 
32.4 
28.6 
29.0 
22.4 



2.8 
2.0 

2-3 
2.1 

6.3 
6.0 

5-2 

4.4 

6.4 



Composition of Some Grain Plants 



Name of grain plant 



Green Fodders 

Barley 

Corn 

Oat 

Rye 



Composition in per cent. 



79.O 

79-3 
62.2 
76.6 



2.7 
1.8 

3-4 
2.6 



Fat 
(ether 
extract) 



0.6 

0.5 
1.4 
0.6 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 



8.0 
12.2 

19-3 
6.8 



Fiber 



7-9 

5-o 

11. 2 

11. 6 



1.8 
1.2 

2-5 
1.8 



Losses in Field Curing. — When the leguminous plants and 
grasses are dried too much in the field, many of the leaves 
and delicate parts, which are rich in protein, fall off, thus de- 
creasing the value of these classes of fodder; the palatability is 
lessened because of the loss of the aroma. Losses occur in all 
forage plants that are subjected to rain and cloudy weather. 
Fermentation often sets in under these conditions and some of 
the plant substances are lost. Rain often washes out some of 
the ash, nitrogen free extract and protein, and darkens the color 
of the product. Grasses suffer less than other plants in field 
curing. Plants like corn, with thick stalks, are practically im- 
possible to field cure without losses from fermentation. 



68 



ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Time to Harvest Forage Plants. — It is generally considered 
best to cut grass before it fully matures as it is more palatable 
and the digestible nutrients probably amount to as much as in 
the fully mature plants. The legumes if allowed to mature 
suffer large losses in the breaking off of the leaves and other 
tender parts. With corn it is best to allow it to mature before 
harvesting as the fiber decreases and half of the carbohydrates 
increase with maturity. This increase in carbohydrates is to be 
expected as the ears amount to about one-half the weight of 
the crop. The dry matter of the mature corn plant is also more 
digestible than that of the immature plant. 

Silage. — Often times feeds are preserved in the green state ; 




Fig. 5. — Filling a silo. 



the resulting product being called silage or ensilage. To ac- 
complish this an air-tight box called the silo is used. The fod- 
der is best preserved by chopping into small pieces about one 
inch long. Corn is preserved more than any other crop in this 
way, although the sorghums and some of the legumes as peas, 
the clovers, cowpeas, soja bean, the vetches and velvet bean are 



NATURAL STOCK FEEDS 



6 9 



sometimes used. Sometimes mixtures as oats and vetch, corn 
and cowpeas, corn and soja bean, etc. are used. Crops that can 
be quickly field cured are not generally made into ensilage. This 
method of preserving crops enables the feeder to furnish green, 
succulent feed at any time of the year, which is especially de- 
sirable to promote the appetite, excite digestion, and increase 
milk production. This method does away with the losses in- 
curred in field curing because of unfavorable weather and loss 
of leaves, etc. It puts the coarse fodders in a good mechanical 
condition for handling. It is more completely consumed so that 
there is little waste. On the whole the preserving of forage 
crops in a silo is more profitable than field curing for crops 
with thick stems. 



Composition of Silage 



Name of silage 



Composition in per cent. 



Fat Nitrogen 
(ether free ex- 
extract) tract 



Fiber 



Ash 



Corn 

Sorghum • 
Red clover 
Soja bean • 
Cowpea . . . 



79.1 
76.1 
72.0 
74.2 
79-3 



1-7 

0.8 
4.2 
4.1 
2.7 



0.8 

0.3 
1.2 
2.2 
1-5 



11. o 

15-3 

n. 6 

6.9 

7.6 



6.0 
6.4 
8.4 

9-7 

6.0 



1.4 
1.1 
1.6 
2.8 
2.9 



Silos are generally of the round (or circular) and square 
forms. The square form is used in barns because of the sav- 
ing of space and the round form is the better for outside the 
barn. The latter form is to be preferred for a silo because the 
materials settle more quickly and more evenly. Silos may be 
constructed of wood, stone, brick, concrete, etc. Wood is very 
satisfactory for building the silo. 

Losses in Silage are usually due to fermentation. Experi- 
ments show that the quicker the ensilage is packed and the air 
excluded the less will be these losses. 

Well handled silage has about the same digestibility as corn 
fodder. 



JO ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 
Digestibility of Corn Silage and Fodder Corn 1 





Digestibility in per cent. 


Forage 


Dry 
matter 


Ash 


Protein 


Fiber 


Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 


Fat 
(ether 
extract) 


Green fodder corn 


68 
66 
66 


35 
34 
3i 


6l 

55 
53 


6i 

66 
67 


74 
69 
70 


74 

72 
81 







Straw is obtained in the threshing of grains and the secur- 
ing of leguminous seeds. Stover from corn is the product left 
after field drying of corn grain and includes the whole plant 
except the ears. The straws from legumes, oats, rice and other 
cereal plants, and stover from corn are used for feeding. The 
straws from grain plants, other than oats and rice, are gener- 
ally too poor for feeding and may be used for bedding. 
Composition of Straws and Stover 



Name of feed 



Oat .... 

Rice 

Rye 

Wheat 

Soja bean. . 
Corn stover 



Composition in per cent. 



9.2 
I2.0 

7-i 

9.6 

10. 1 

22.8 



4.0 

5-9 
3-o 

3-4 
4.6 

5-5 



Fat 

(ether 

extract) 



2-3 
2. I 
I .2 
1-3 

i-7 
1-3 



Nitrogen 

free ex 

tract 



42.4 

33-7 
46.6 

43-4 
37-4 
39-9 



Ash 



37-o 
38.6 
38.9 
38.1 
40.4 
25.6 



5-i 

7.8 

3-2 
4.2 

5-8 

4-9 



Roots and Tubers. — Turnips, carrots, rutabagas, mangel wur- 
zels (a kind of beet) and beets are the principal root crops 
used for feeding. Potatoes (Irish and sweet) are sometimes 
fed but they are generally grown for human consumption and too 
expensive to be utilized for stock. Irish potatoes are known as 
tubers. The root and tuber crops contain a great deal of water ; 
the average per cent, of water in these crops is about 90 per 
cent. That is for every 100 pounds of roots or tubers there 
are only 10 pounds of dry matter or actual feed. For making 

1 Woll, Henry's Feeds and Feeding. 



NATURAL STOCK FEEDS 



71 



milk or producing beef and mutton the feeding of root crops 
is satisfactory. On account of the tonic effect, roots give re- 
sults far above what the chemical composition would indicate. 
In the South many crops can be grown on the same piece of land 
in a season ; roots may be grown in the early fall and winter 
at a time when the land is often idle and harvested in time for 
the regular planting of the summer crops. Roots and tubers can 
be stored away and kept for feeding, provided the storehouse 
is well aired and kept at a low temperature. Bull. 243, Cornell. 
N. Y., Experiment Station, says : "If corn meal is worth $20 
a ton or more in New York State, economy in the production of 
roots would be indicated." 

Composition of Roots and Tubers 



Name of feed 



Composition in per cent. 



Fat 
(ether 
extract) 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 



Fiber 



Carrot 

Beet (sugar) . . 
Beet ( mangel ) . 
Potato (Irish) • 
Potato (sweet) 
Turnip 



88.6 
86.5 
90.9 
78.9 
71. 1 
90-5 



1.1 
1.8 
1.4 
2.1 

i-5 
1.1 



0.4 
o.r 
0.2 
o. 1 
0.4 
0.2 



7.6 
9.8 
5-5 
17-3 
24.7 
6.2 



i-3 
0.9 
0.9 
0.6 

i-3 
1.2 



1.0 
0.9 
1.1 
1.0 
1.0 

0.8 



Grains and Seeds. — Some of our principal grains and seeds 
used for stock feeding are corn, cotton-seed, rice, oats, barley, 
rye, flaxseed, wheat, beans and peas. Most of our grains and 
seeds must be thoroughly dried before they are stored away. 
If they are not completely dried, they are liable to ferment and 
decompose. Such deterioration spoils them for feeding pur- 
poses. A full description of the grains, seeds and their by-prod- 
ucts will be given in the following sections under commercial 
feed stuffs. 

Production of Some Feeds. — The following table 1 gives the 
production of some farms crops for the year 1908. All of the 
seeds and more especially their by-products are used extensively 
for feeding farm animals and a study of the table should im- 

1 1908 Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



J2 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



press the student with the great amount of these crops consumed 
each year by live-stock. 

Production, 190S Farm value, Dec. 1, 1908 

Corn 2,668,651,000 bu. $1, 616, 145,000 

Cotton 13,241,799 bales 588,814,828 

Rice 21,889,620 bu. 17,771,281 

Wheat 664,602,000 bu. 616,826,000 

Oats 807,156,000 bu. 381,171,000 

Barley 166,756,000 bu. 92,442,000 

Rye 31,851,000 bu. 23,455,000 

Hay 70,798,000 tons 635,423,000 

Buckwheat 15,874,000 bu. 1 2,004,000 

Flax 25,851,000 bu. 1 

Cane sugar ...... 365,000 long tons 

Beet sugar 380,254 long tons 

Suggestion : — The professor should try to secure exhibits of 
the various natural and commercial feeds in order to make the 
study of these few sections more interesting and instructive. 
Most of the natural feeds may be easily obtained at home. If 
you write to the following concerns and state that you wish 
Ya to l /i a pound of each of their products for demonstration, 
I believe you will have no difficulty in collecting an elaborate 
exhibit, provided you are connected with a college or a high 
school. The student or the farmer cannot expect to receive 
these exhibits. 

LIST OF CONCERNS. 

Corn and its by-products — Corn Products Co., Chicago, III. 

Wheat and its by-products — Washburn, Crosby Co., Minne- 
apolis, Minn. 

Oats and its by-products — Quaker Oats Co., Chicago, 111. 

Flaxseed and its by-products — American Linseed Co., Chicago, 
111. 

Cotton-seed and its by-products — American Cotton Oil Co., 
New York City ; Southern Cotton Oil Co., Atlanta, Ga. 

Rice and its by-products — Louisiana Rice Exp. Station, Crow- 
ley, La. ; Louisiana Rice Association, Crowley, La. 

Packing House by-products — Swift & Co. or Armour & Co., 
Chicago, 111. 

1 1907. 



NATURAL STOCK FEEDS 73 

Cane molasses (blackstrap) — Sugar Exp. Station, Audubon 
Park, New Orleans, La. 

Beet molasses and dried beet pulp — The Experiment Stations 
of Michigan, Colorado, California, Utah and Wisconsin, or 
Michigan Sugar Co., Saginaw, Mich. ; The Great Western Sugar 
Co., Denver, Col. ; American Beet Sugar Co. ; 32 Nassau St., 
New York City or 16 California St., San Francisco. California. 

For other commercial feeds as dried brewers' grains, dried 
distillers' grains, malt sprouts, feed mixtures, molasses feeds, 
corn and oat feeds, wheat admixtures, poultry feeds, etc., con- 
sult the chemist in charge of feed stuff control in your state or 
go to the feed stores and obtain samples. Condimental feeds, 
condition powders, etc., may be obtained at feed stores, drug 
stores and occasionally at livery stables. 

These samples may be preserved in museum bottles by adding 
a few drops of formalin and closing the tops with cotton or glass 
stoppers. The formalin is added in order to kill any insects that 
may be present or hatch out in the feed. Cotton is recommended 
when glass stoppers are not available because the weevils do 
not penetrate it as they do cork stoppers. 

Have the students make a list of the natural feeds that are 
raised mostly in the state. 



SECTION XV. 



COMMERCIAL FEEDS. 

Commercial feeds may be defined as those feeds made from 
the grains, seeds, their by-products, all products left after the 
preparation of human foods and beverages, the by-products 
left after oil extraction and animal and fish by-products. 

Value of By-Products. — Many of these by-products are very 
valuable for feeding live-stock. Cotton-seed meal, wheat bran, 
wheat middlings, linseed meal, gluten feed, dried brewers' grains, 
distillers' grains, rice polish and hominy feeds are a few of the 
important by-products found on our markets. Others of these 
waste products such as inferior corn, oat hulls, rice hulls, buck- 
wheat hulls, sweepings and elevator dust possess little feeding 
value and are sometimes injurious. 

New By-Products. — Because of the high prices of grains and 
seeds, the increasing consumption of these by the human race, 
and the keen competition, almost all the by-products are being 
saved and disposed of in our commercial feeds. New by-prod- 
ucts are continually being put on the American market, gen- 
erally mixed with other materials but sometimes sold unmixed. 

Sources of Commercial Feeds. — The following statement sum- 
marizes the sources of the by-products. These by-products are 
derived from: 

i. The manufacture of cotton-seed oil, linseed oil and some- 
times other vegetable oils. 

2. The manufacture of whiskey, beer, alcohol, spirits, etc. 

3. The manufacture of human cereals (breakfast foods). 

4. The manufacture of glucose and starch. 

5. The manufacture of products from grains, such as flour 
and rice. 

6. The manufacture of cane-sugar, beet-sugar, sorghum cuite, 

etc. 

7. The manufacture of animal and fish products. 

Vegetable Oil By-Products. — The by-products from the manu- 
facture of vegetable oils are principally cotton-seed meal, cot- 
ton-seed hulls, linseed meal and flax feed. 



COMMERCIAL FEEDS 75 

Importance of Cotton Products. — The yield of cotton in the 
United States is approximately 11,000,000 bales per year. It 
takes 1,500 pounds of seed cotton to make a bale and a bale 
weighs 500 pounds. This leaves 1,000 pounds for the manu- 
facture of the by-products. The oil mills do not secure all of the 
seed, as many of the planters keep the seed for feeding and 
fertilizing at home. The price of seed is on the increase and 
a greater per cent, of the seed raised is being sold to the manu- 
facturers every year than formerly. For the year 1908, 929. 
287, 467 pounds of cotton-seed were manufactured. 1 The boll 
weevil, an insect that destroys a great many bolls of cotton, thus 
decreasing the yield, has been and is diminishing the yield and 
acreage of cotton in certain sections of the cotton belt. The 
figures cited, however, should impress the student with the im- 
portance of this industry and the large amount of cotton-seed 
meal and hulls which are used for feeding purposes. 

Cotton-Seed Products. — Attached to the seed of cotton are long 
white fibers known to us as cotton. When the cotton is ginned 
all of these fibers or lint are removed except a few short fibers 
which adhere to the seeds. The seeds are then taken to a cot- 
ton-seed oil mill and treated as follows. First, the greater 
part of the lint is removed by a second ginning in a machine 
called the delinter, leaving the seed. The seed is composed of 
the hull, or hard outer covering, and the kernel or meat. The 
seeds are then put through a machine called the huller which 
removes the hulls from the seed. This process is called de- 
corticating the seed. The whole mass (hulls and meats) is now 
subjected to a separating process by shaking in a revolving 
screen, the meats passing through the perforations of the screen. 
The hulls obtained in this process are known as cottonseed 
hulls. The meats are conveyed from the shaker to special steam 
jacketed covered kettles and cooked. The cooked meats are 
transferred to a machine, called the cake former, where they 
are made up into cakes or forms of the proper size to fit the 
hydraulic press, and wrapped with camels' hair cloth. These 
hot forms are now subjected to enormous pressure in a hydraulic 

1 1908 Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



j6 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

press and the oil is removed. The remaining product is ground 




Fig. 6.— Cotton, the source of cotton-seed meal. 

and sold as cotton-seed meal, although a great deal of it is 
shipped to foreign countries without being ground. 

Yields of Products of a Ton of Cotton-Seed 1 

Pounds 

Linters • 23 

Hulls 943 

Crude oil (37.6 gals. ) • 282 

Cake or meal 713 

Waste ......... 39 

Total ■ 2,000 

This is about the average yield of the cotton oil mills al- 
though in many cases the production of oil approximates 40 
to 45 gallons. The higher extraction of oil will of course re- 
duce the amount of meal. In the past few years the oil mills 
have been securing a higher extraction of oil, averaging about 
40 gallons per ton of seed. Dry, clean, mature seed yields more 
hulls than immature seed and produces a better grade of oil. 

1 Eamborn, Cotton Seed Products. 



COMMERCIAL FEEDS 



77 



Composition of Cotton-Seed, Meats, Meal and Hulls 






Composition in per cent. 




Protein 


Fat 
(ether 
extract) 


Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 


Fiber 


Water 


Ash 




18.4 

31.2 

43-o 

4-2 


I9.9 
36.6 

8.5 
2.2 


24.7 
17.6 
25-7 

33-4 


23.2 

3-7 
7.8 

46.3 


IO.3 
6.2 
8.2 

II. I 


3-5 
4.7 
6.8 

2.8 









The composition of these products varies a great deal. Some- 
times the meal reaches 49 per cent, protein. Some mills have 
poor extraction and turn out meal that carries 10 to 13 per cent, 
fat. The feed sold as cotton-seed hulls varies with the amount 
of broken meats present. A poor separation of hulls and meats 
causes this product to occasionally contain as high as 10 per 
cent, protein and 2.5 to 3 per cent. fat. The composition of 
cotton-seed meal is apt to vary with the season, the nature of 
the soil it was raised on, the fertilizers applied and the climatic 
conditions. 
Composition of Cotton-Seed Meal from Htgh and Low Land Seed 



Cotton-seed meal from 



High land 
Low land • 



Composition in per cent. 



45 46 
41.63 



Fat 

(ether 
extract) 



8.63 
7.22 



Nitrogen 
tree ex 
tract 



24.24 
26.64 



Fiber 



7-25 
9.68 



8.52 
8.60 



5-9° 
6.23 



Cold Pressed Cake. — This is sometimes sold as Caddo cake and 
is the residue obtained from cotton seed from which most of the 
oil has been extracted by compression, without separating the 
kernels and the hulls and without heating. 

Composition of Cold Pressed Cake 



Protein 
Per cent. 


Fat (ether 
extract) 
Per cent. 


Nitrogen free 

extract 

Per cent. 


Fiber 
Per cent. 


Water 
Per cent. 


Ash 
Per cent. 


21-28.5 


5-8-T3-5 


26-33 


17-26 


7 


5 



yS ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Flax Products. — These materials are very common in certain 
sections of the West. They are derived from the flax plant 
which is grown for its valuable fiber. 

The yearly production of flaxseed in the United States aver- 
ages about 25,000,000 to 26,000,000 bushels. A bushel of flax- 
seed (56 lbs.) contains about 19 pounds of oil and 36 pounds 
of other material. 1 For the year 1908, 696,135,362 pounds of 
linseed cake was manufactured. 2 . 

1. Linseed Meal. — There are two classes of linseed meal found 
on the American market, namely, old process and new process 
meal. The old process meal is obtained by pressing out the oil 
from the cold or warmed crushed flax seeds. The new pro- 
cess consists of extracting the oil from the warmed crushed 
flax seeds by the use of naphtha. This new process is employed 
because it permits of a greater extraction of oil. The naphtha 
is driven off by steam before the product is placed upon the 
market. 

2. Flax Feed. — This by-product is composed of the screenings 
from the flax seed, which contains inferior flax seeds, weed 
seeds, as well as part of the shell and fiber of the flax. It is 
usually ground and used to some extent in mixed feeds. 

3. Flax Bran is a variable product which is used by manufac- 
turers of commercial feeds as a filler and to furnish bulk and 
roughage to their feeds. It is generally made up of stems, 
pods and small flax seeds in varying proportions. The value 
of this product depends upon the amount of flaxseed present. 

4. Cold Pressed Linseed Cake. — This is the residue obtained 
by pressing most of the oil from flaxseed by compression with- 
out heating. The process of obtaining this product is similar 
to that employed in manufacturing cold pressed cotton seed 
cake. Cold pressed linseed cake contains more fat (oil) and 
less protein than linseed meal. 

1 Jordan, "The Feeding of Animals," 

2 1908 Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



COMMERCIAL FEEDS 



79 



Composition of Flax Seed and Its Feeding By-Products 



Composition in per cent. 



Fat 
(ether 
extract) 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 



Ash 



Flax seed 

Old process meal 

New process meal 

Flax feed 

Flax bran 1 • 

(Pods, 59 95 per cent.) 
(Stems, 40.05 per cent/ 



22.6 

32.9 

33-2 

!5-9 
6.0 

7.2 
3-5 



33-7 
7-9 
3-o 

11. 6 

4-3 
5-3 
2-5 



23.2 
35-4 
38.4 
41.9 
34-8 
37-3 
28.5 



7-i 
8.9 

9-5 
14.6 
41.8 

35-5 
54-9 



9.2 
9.2 
10. 1 
8.1 
7-4 
7-5 
7.2 



Value of Old and New Process Meal. — Woll found by artificial 
digestion that the protein of old process meal is 10 per cent, 
more digestible than the protein of the new process meal. This 
lower digestibility of protein in the new process meal is attrib- 
uted to the use of steam to drive off the naphtha. We learned 
that the cooking of plant substances reduces the digestibility of 
protein. 

Other Vegetable Oil Feeds are peanut meal, sunflower seed 
meal, rape seed meal, cocoanut meal and palm-nut meal. These 
are not used extensively in this country for feeding stock. The 
whole peanuts of course are used for human and hog feed, but 
are not common as commercial feeds. 

Alcoholic By-Products. — Brewers' grains, malt sprouts, and dis- 
tillers' grains are examples of these by-products. They are 
rich in nitrogenous substances containing about Yi to Y as much 
protein as choice cotton seed meal, when dried. 

1. Brewers' Grains. — These are the by-products from the manu- 
facture of beer. They consist principally of barley grains from 
which the starch and other soluble matter have been extracted. 
When brewers' grains are used without drying, as wet brewers' 
grains, they must be fed near the brewery, as their high water 
content will not permit of shipping, because of the liability of 
fermentation setting in especially in warm locations, and the 
cost of transportation generally makes them unprofitable as feed. 

1 Bui. 141, Indiana Experiment Station. 



80 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Brewers' grains are kiln dried and sold as dried brewers' grains. 
In this form they are not perishable. 

2. Malt Sprouts. — In the fermenting of barley for the manu- 
facture of beer the barley begins to grow or sprout. When 
these barley sprouts have attained a height of about 34 mc h 
they are removed from the grain by machinery. They are then 
artificially dried and sold as malt sprouts. Feeders near the 
breweries often feed them in the wet state. 

3. Distillers' Grains. — In the manufacture of whiskey and al- 
cohol, etc., the starch and other soluble matter are removed 
from the several cereal grains. The remaining product is kiln 
dried and sold as dried distillers' grains. This product consists 
mostly of the germ, nitrogenous substances and outer cover- 
ings of the cereal grains. 

Composition of Alcoholic By-Products 







Composition 


in per cent. 






Protein 


Fat 
(ether 
extract) 


Nitrogen 
tree ex- 
tract 


Fiber 


Water 


Ash 


Dried brewers' grains. .... 

Malt sprouts (dried) ...... 

Dried distillers' grains. • • . 


5-4 
25-1 
27.6 
32.1 


1.6 
6.8 

11. 4 


12.5 
41.7 

47-1 
34-9 


3-8 
15.4 
10.9 
n. 


75-7 
7.1 
5-o 
8.8 


I.O 

3-9 
6.4 

i-7 



Breakfast Food By-Products. — In the manufacture of cereal 
foods, only the sound grains are used. Oats, wheat, corn, bar- 
ley and rice are the principal grains from which breakfast foods 
are made. The hulls of the grains are usually removed and 
these hulls together with the inferior grains, and sometimes other 
parts of the grain, go to make up commercial stock feeds. Oat 
feeds and corn and oat feeds are stock feeds which are made 
up almost entirely of breakfast food by-products. The corn 
and oat feeds are sold to a large extent in this country and 
sometimes cost almost as much as the original grains from 
which thev are derived. 



COMMERCIAL FEEDS 



81 



Composition of Oat and Corn and Oat Feeds 



Composition in per cent. 



Fat 

Protein ! (ether 
extract) 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 



Fiber 



Ash 



Oat feed 

Corn and oat feed 
Oat hulls 



7.2 
8.7 
3-3 



2.1 
3-9 



53-1 
65.2 

52.1 



23-4 

9.2 

29.7 



8.6 
9.6 
7.2 



5-6 
3-4 
6.7 




Fig. 7. — Corn kernel. 

a — is the husk or skin covering the whole kernel; it consists of two distinct layers, 
the outer and inner, which when removed constitute the bran and contain practically 
all of the crude fiber of the whole grain; b — is a layer of gluten cells which lie imme- 
diately underneath the husk; it is, as a rule, yellow in color and cannot be readily 
separated from the remainder of the kernel; this part is richest in gluten; c— is the 
germ which is readily distinguished by its position and form; it also contains gluten 
though it is particularly rich in oil and mineral constituents; d — the large portion, is 
composed chiefly of starch; the dark color indicates the flinty part in which the starch 
cells are most closely compacted. Illustration after New Jersey Exp. Sta. Description 
after Mass. Exp. Sta. 



82 



ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Composition of Corn and Oats for Comparison 



Corn 
Oats- 



Composition in per cent. 



9 1 
II. 8 



Fat 
(ether 
extract) 



3-7 
5-o 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 



72.5 

59-7 



Fiber 



2.2 

9-5 



II. I 

II. o 



Ash 



i-4 
3-0 



Glucose and Starch By-Pro ducts. — There are many by-products 
left from the manufacture of glucose and starch. These by- 
products usually come from the grain of corn. Gluten meal, 
gluten feed, corn bran, hominy feed, feed meal and corn germ 
meal are corn by-products. 1. Gluten meal is derived from the 
nitrogenous portion of the corn grain, known as the gluten 
layer. This feed is not so common on our markets as formerly. 
2. Gluten feed is ground corn grain minus the starch. 3. Corn 
bran is made up of the outer husks or coverings of the corn 
grain. 4. Corn germ meal is generally the ground corn germs 
with more or less of the oil extracted. 5. Hominy feed and 
feed meal are the by-products from the manufacture of hominy 
grits and starch. They vary in composition and usually consist 
of the softer parts of the corn kernel and sometimes they contain 

corn bran. 

Composition of Corn, Glucose and Starch By-Products 



Composition in per cent. 



Fat 

(ether 
extract) 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 



Corn grain 

Gluten meal 
Gluten feed 

Corn bran 

Corn germ meal 
Hominy feed- • • • 



9-1 
29-3 
24.0 
9.0 
9.8 
99 



3-7 
11. 8 
10.6 
5-8 
7-4 
7-i 



72.5 
46.5 
51-2 
62.2 
64.0 
64.4 



2.2 
3-3 
5-3 
12.6 
4.1 
7-1 



11. 1 
8.2 
7.8 
9.1 

10.7 
9.0 



1-4 
0.9 
1.1 

i-3 
4.0 

2-5 



Suggestion : — Require the students to bring as many different 
kinds of breakfast foods as possible to the classroom. Have 
them state the grains from which they were made and the part 
or parts that were eliminated in manufacture. 



SECTION XVI. 



COMMERCIAL FEEDS— Continued 
Milling By-Products. — These consist of wheat by-products and 

rice by-products. 

Wheat By-Products.-— Of the 664,602,000 bushels of wheat 

harvested in the United States during 1908 about 11 per cent. 

was saved for seed and 25 per cent, of the remainder constituted 

the wheat by-products. According to Bessey the wheat kernel 

is made up as follows i 1 

Per cent. Per cent. 

Coatings 5 Starch cells 1-4-86 

Gluten layer 3-4 Germ 6 

Wheat bran, wheat middlings, wheat screenings and flour are 
products derived from the wheat kernel. 1. Wheat bran con- 
sists mostly of the outer portions of the wheat kernel. 2. Wheat 
middlings is sometimes called shorts, and is made up of the 
inner layers of the outer covering of the wheat kernel. 3. 
Wheat screenings is a variable product obtained in screening 
wheat to prepare it for manufacturing into flour. It generally 
consists mostly of fine particles of the kernel, shrunken kernels, 
and may contain weed seeds and other foreign matter. It is 
used in mixed feeds and sometimes fed alone. 4. Flour is 
made from the starchy part of the wheat kernel, or the soft 
white interior portion. When flour contains middlings it is 
known as low grade flour, red dog flour, dark feeding flour and 
used for feeding live-stock. 

Composition of Wheat and Its By-Products 



Composition in per cent. 



Fat 

(ether 
extract) 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 



Finer 



Wheat kernel 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings (shorts) 
Wheat mixed feed (bran 

and shorts ) 

Wheat screenings 

Red dog flour 

High grade flour 



11. 9 

15-4 

16. 1 

'5-5 
12.5 
13-4 

11. 2 



2.1 
4.0 

4-5 

4-3 
3-o 
1.8 
0.5 



71.9 
53-9 
58.7 

56.8 
65.1 
68.2 
77.0 



1.8 
9.0 
5-7 

7-4 
4-9 
i-5 
°-3 



10.5 
11. 9 
10.4 

10.9 
11. 6 

13-3 
10.6 



5-8 
4.6 

5-i 
2.9 
1.8 
0.4 



1 Jordan, " The Feeding of Animals.' 



84 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

From the foregoing analyses of wheat and its by-products it 
is apparent that the by-products used for stock feed are higher 
in nitrogenous substances than the high-grade flour used for 
human consumption. The carbohydrates are higher in the flours 
than in the coarser products. 

Rice By-Products. — The rice crop of the United States for 
1908 was estimated as 21,889,620 bushels. 1 A bushel of rough 
rice weighs 45 pounds. A barrel of rough rice of 162 pounds 
contains approximately the following products : 2 

91.32 lbs. head or clean rice (unbroken grains), No. 1 grade 

15.30 lbs. broken rice, No. 2 grade 

6.28 lbs. brewers' rice, very broken (grits) 

20.00 lbs. bran 

8.00 lbs. polish 

21.10 lbs. hulls 

162.00 lbs. Total 

Rice hulls, rice bran, rice meal, rice grits and rice polish are 
the by-products obtained in the milling of rice. I. Rice hulls 
are the outer protecting parts or hulls of the rice kernel. They 
are sometimes injurious when fed in large quantities, on account 
of their silicious or sandy structure. 2. Rice bran. This ma- 
terial comprises the outer layer of the rice kernel together with 
some of the germ. Most of the rice brans contain some rice 
hulls. The rice hulls cannot always be entirely eliminated in 
manufacturing but there will not be enough in this product to 
be injurious provided the hulls are not added. 3. Rice meal. 
This material is usually sold under the name of rice bran and 
is similar to rice bran except that it is practically free from 
hulls. 4. Rice grits or brewers' rice. This product is made up 
of the small hard particles which break off from the kernel in 
obtaining the rice polish or in handling rice. Grits are used 
by the brewers in making beer. Being small and hard they are 
apt to be of little feeding value unless ground. The brewers' 
are glad to pay a higher price than the feeder can afford for 
this article. 5. Rice polish. This consists of the flour, or white 

1 1908 Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
s Bui. 77, Iyouisiana Exp. Station. 



COMMERCIAL FEEDS 



85 



powdery substance, which is removed from the rice kernel. The 
rice kernel is corrugated or rough, and in giving to it the 
smooth appearance and pearly lustre that the trade demands, 
the rough parts are smoothed down and brushed off with spec- 
ial machinery. Rice meal and rice polish are excellent feeds 
when sweet. Sometimes the meal contains a high content of 
fat (12-20 per cent.) which is objectionable because of its li- 
ability to turn rancid, in which case the feed is not fit for use. 
Rice polish is a good feed for fattening hogs and cattle. 

Composition of Rice and Its By-Products 



Rice ( rough ) 

Rice (clean) 

Rice hulls 

Rice bran ( 15 per cent 

hulls) 

Rice meal 

Rice polish 



Composition in per cent. 





Fat 


Nitrogen 






Protein 


(ether 
extract) 


free ex- 
tract 


Fiber 


Water 


7-4 


2.6 


64-3 


9-3 


IO.9 


7-5 


0.4 


78.1 


0.5 


12.8 


3-5 


0.5 


26.8 


41.9 


9.0 


9-9 


9-9 


44-5 


14.5 


9-9 


13-3 


10.7 


49.8 


8.7 


8.6 


11. 1 


5-8 


64-3 


3-8 


H-5 



Ash 



5-5 
0.7 

18.3 

"■3 

8.9 

3-5 



Sugar By-Products. — About 20,000,000 gallons of cane mo- 
lasses (blackstrap) are produced annually in the United States. 
A gallon weighs about 12 pounds. A great deal of this output is 
used for feeding live-stock. The demand for cane molasses for 
feeding is not satisfied by the Louisiana output so a great deal 
is being imported from the tropical countries, notably Porto 
Rico and Cuba. There is also a large quantity of beet molasses 
used for feeding. The amount used is hard to estimate because 
many factories work over their molasses so that there is none 
left for feeding. However, it is questionable at the present 
whether it is not more profitable to sell the molasses as stock 
feed than to work it over for its sugar content. 

The sugar by-products used for stock feeds are cane mo- 
lasses, beet molasses, beet pulp and sorghum cuite or molasses. 
1. Cane molasses. The cane molasses sold for stock feed is 
usually the final product from the manufacture of cane-sugar. 



86 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

It is called Blackstrap and is noted for its high content of di- 
gestible carbohydrates. It also contains 2.4 per cent, of protein 
which is considered to be in the form of amides, which have 
a doubtful flesh forming function. Therefore in using this for 
feeding, the protein is disregarded. 2. Beet molasses. This is 
the final product left from the manufacture of sugar from the 
sugar beet when the molasses is not worked over. Beet mo- 




, <. yJjL f.. 









Fig 8. — Sugar cane, the source of cane molasses. 

lasses contains less carbohydrates than cane molasses and more 
ash. It has a bitter taste due to the large amount of potash 
present and for this reason is not used for human consumption. 
Like cane molasses, beet molasses is used a great deal for feed- 
ing- purposes, although it is not so palatable as molasses from 
cane. 3. Beet pulp. This is the refuse or what remains of the 
sugar beet after the sugar has been extracted. It is often mixed 
with the molasses residues of the factory and is very wet. For 
this reason it cannot be used in the wet condition, except by 



COMMERCIAL FEEDS 



87 



feeders near the factory. Beet refuse is often kiln dried and 
sold as dried beet pulp. In this condition it is not perishable. 
4. Sorghum molasses or cuite. This product is used to a limited 
extent in some sections for feeding live-stock. 

Composition of Sugar By-Products 



Composition in per cent. 



Fat 
(ether 
extract) 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 



Fiber 



Ash 



Cane molasses • • ■ 
Beet molasses • . • 
Beet pulp (wet) • 
Beet pulp (dried) 



2.4 

9-1 
0.9 
9.0 



1-5 



65-9 

59-5 

6-3 

57-o 



2.4 
18.8 



22.4 
20.8 
89.8 
10.4 



9-3 

10.6 

0.6 

3-3 



Animal and Fish By-Products. — The principal products of ani- 
mal origin are milk and its by-products, and refuse from pack- 
ing houses. The by-products from fish are classed as fish re- 
fuse. 

Milk. — The composition of milk varies a great deal with the 
species of animal. 1 



Bitch • • • 

Ewe 

Sow 

Goat 

Cow 

Woman . 
Mare . . . 



Composition in per cent. 



75-44 
79.46 
84.04 
86.04 
87.IO 
88.20 
89.80 



Dry 
matter 



24-54 
20.56 

I5-96 

I3-9 6 
12.90 
11.80 
10.20 



Ash 



•73 
•97 
1.05 
.76 
.70 
.20 
•30 



Albu 
men 



6.IO 5.05 

5- 2 3 i-45 

7- 2 3 
3.49 .86 

3.20 
1. 00 .50 

1.84 



Sugar 



3-°9 
4.28 

3-13 

4.22 
5.10 
6.80 
6.89 



9-57 
8.63 

4-55 
4-63 
3-9° 
3-3° 
1.17 



In all probability the nutrients are present in milk in the 
right proportions for supporting the young animal, as nature 
intended that it should be used to furnish the young animals' 
needs. The table shows that there is quite a difference in the 
dry matter of milk from the species. The milks containing 

1 Jordan, " The Feeding of Animals." 



88 



ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



the higher dry matter are also higher in nitrogenous substances 
and ash, and lower in sugar than those lower in dry matter. 

Milk By-Products. — Skim milk, buttermilk and whey are the 
principal milk by-products used for feeding live-stock, i. Skim 
milk is obtained by allowing milk to stand skimming off the 
cream or by separating it by centrifugal force. 2. Buttermilk 
is what remains after making butter. It has about the same 
composition as skim milk. 3. Whey is the by-product obtained 
in making cheese. The fat and casein of the milk are removed 
in cheese making. 

Composition of Milk By-Products 



Composition in per cent. 



Ca«ein 

and 
albumen 



Milk 
sugar 



Author- 
ity 



Skhn milk (gravity) . . • 
Skim milk (centrifugal) 

Buttermilk 

Whey • ...••• 



9°-43 
90.30 
90.12 
93-38 



0.87 
o. 10 
1.09 
0.32 



3.26 
3-55 
4.03 
0.86 



4-74 
5-25 
4.04 

4-79 



0.70 
0.80 
0.72 
0.65 



Konig 

V'nSlyke 

Konig 

Konig 



Skim milk and buttermilk run lower in water and higher in 
nitrogenous substances than whey. Therefore whey is more of 
a carbohydrate food than skim milk and buttermilk. 

Packing House By-Products. — From the packing houses come 
tankage, dried blood, meat scraps, bone meal, and meat and bone 
meal. These products are sometimes fed to hogs and are ex- 
cellent for poultry. Tankage is composed entirely of animal 
matter. It consists of meat and 'bone (from which the fat has 
been extracted) and more or less dried blood. It is variable in 
composition, but it usually contains a high content of protein. 
Dried blood is simply what the name signifies. It has a black 
brown color and is ground very fine. It is sold as red blood 
and black blood; the red blood being of higher protein composi- 
tion. Bone meal is finely ground bone and is generally sold 
after the fat has been extracted because of its better keeping 
qualities. 



COMMERCIAL FEEDS 



8 9 



Fish Refuse is the dried product from canneries, whale bone 
establishments and factories where glue is manufactured. The 
oil is generally extracted and the fish refuse dried and sold as 
fish scraps or dry ground fish. 

Composition of Animal and Fish By-Products 



Protein 
Fat 

Ash.... 



Tankage 
Per cent. 



46 



Dried 

blood 

Per cent. 



2-5 

4-7 



Meat 

scraps 

Per cent. 



55 

14 

20 



Dry gro'nd 

fish 
Per cent. 



53 
6 

3i 



Bone meal 
Per cent. 



26 

3 

67 



Meat and 
bone meal 
Per cent. 



40 



40 



All these products are highly nitrogenous and those that have 
bone present contain a large percentage of mineral compounds. 
Rations of cereals and these products, that contain high ash con- 
tents, are very satisfactory with hogs, as the cereals are gener- 
ally deficient in the nutrients that these products are rich in. 
When corn is fed alone to hogs the addition of one of these 
by-products containing bone proves beneficial. 



SECTION XVII. 



CLASSES OF COMMERCIAL FEEDS. 

In the previous three sections descriptions of the natural and 
commercial feeds were discussed ; feeds are not always found 
on our markets unmixed, but in various mixed combinations. 
There are many manufacturers who use the natural and by- 
product feeds and mix them in varying proportions, often selling 
them under elaborate trade names. These manufacturers sell 
enormous quantities of stock feeds to our feeders. 

We will now take up some of these mixtures. On page 91 
are the principal feeds that the manufacturers offer to the trade 
with standards of protein, fat and fiber. A feed to be of stand- 
ard quality should not exceed the fiber content and it should 
reach the protein and fat contents. The feed should also be 
clean, free from fermentation, mold, rancidity and be in good 
mechanical condition. Some of the data in this table is adapted 
from Bui. 120, Mass. Exp. Station, and represent averages. 

A Discussion of the Table. — It must be remembered that many 
of these feeds are not sold under the names given in the above 
table. The manufacturers of mixed feeds usually employ at- 
tractive names which do not always reveal the nature of the 
products which make up the mixtures. For example, we may 
find a cotton-seed feed, or a corn and oat feed, or a wheat 
admixture, or a molasses feed, or a feed mixture "being offered 
to the trade as Star Feed, Cracker Feed, Balanced Feed, Patchen 
Feed, Best Feed, Union Feed, Dixie Feed, etc. The straight 
feeds as wheat bran, wheat middlings (shorts), corn chops, 
dried brewers' grains, etc., usually carry names that distinguish 
their nature. 

So this classification is not used on feeds by the manufacturer, 
but by the chemist who arranges them according to what they 
contain in the way of natural and by-products feeds. Some of 
the feeds in the table will not be taken up because we have al- 
ready spoken sufficiently of them, 

Cotton-Seed Meal. — In the past few years the manufacturers 
have not always put out this product in its pure state, but often 



CLASSES OE COMMERCIAL FEEDS 



91 



Name of feed 



Protein 
Per cent. 



Fat 
Per cent. 



Fiber 
Per cent. 



Cotton-seed meal ( choice ) 

Cotton-seed meal (prime) 

Cotton-seed meal (good) 

New process linseed meal 

Gluten meal 

Dried distillers' grains 

Old process linseed meal 

Gluten feed 

Malt sprouts ( dried ) 

Dried brewers' grains 

Cotton seed feed 

Germ oil meal 

Wheat middlings (flour) 

Wheat middlings (standard) 

Wheat mixed feed (bran and shorts) 

Wheat bran 

Oat middlings 

Flax feed 

Molasses dry dairy feed 

Rye feed 

Feed mixture (dairy) 

Alfalfa meal (whole plant) 

Fortified oat feed 

Wheat admixture 

Wheat screenings 

Rice bran 

Clover meal (whole plant) 

Rice polish 

Molasses dry horse or mule or ox 

feed 

Feed mixture (horse or mule or ox) 

Ground oats 

Ground wheat 

Barley meal • • • • 

Rye meal 

Hominy feed 

Mixed oats and barley 

Provender 

Feed meal 

Corn bran 

Corn meal 

Corn chops 

Corn and oat feed 

Oat feed 

Dried beet pulp 

Poultry Feeds 

Blood meal 

Meat scraps 

Meat and bone meal 

Bone meal 

Mash and meal 

Hen, chick, scratching and pigeon 

feed 



41-15-50 
38.50-41.15 

36-38-50 

3S 

35 

32 

32 

25 

25 

22 

22 

22 
18-20 
17-19 
16-18 
15-17 

17 

15 
14-18 

15 

135-H 
12-14 

12.5 
12.5 
12.5 
12 
11-12 

11-12 
11 
11 
11 
11 
10 
10 
10 
10 

9 

9 

9 

8-5 
7-5-IO 
5-8 

8 

85 
50 

40 

25 
15 



5-10 
5-10 
6.5-10 

2 

1 
10 

6 

3 

1 

5 

5 

10 

5 

5 
4-5 
4-5 

7 
10 

4 
3 
4 
1-5 

3-5 
4 
3 
7-10 
2 
8 

4-5 

3-5 

4 

2 

i-5 
i-5 
7-5 
3-5 
3-5 
6 

5 
3-5 

3-3 

3-5 

2 

o-3 

0.2 

15 
10 

4-5 



7 

10 
11 

9 

2 

9-5 

9 

7-5 
12.5 
12 
22 

9-5 

3-5 

7 

8-5 
10 

2-5 
15 
14 

4 

15 

29-30 

13 

5 

10 

25 
2-4 

12-14 

14 
10 

3 
6 
6 

4-5 
10 
6 

5-5 
10 
2 

2-5 
8-1 1 
20-26 
18 



92 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 

grind cotton-seed hulls and mix them with the meal and sell the 
product as cotton-seed meal. These hulls are ground so fine 
that it is impossible to detect the extent of their presence with 
the naked eye. Sometimes a meal is of high-grade (44-49 per 
cent, protein) and the hulls are added to bring down the pro- 
tein content to the guarantee of say 41 per cent, protein. 

Commercial Classification. — The Inter-State Cotton-Seed Crush- 
ers' Association composed of those interested or dealing in 
cotton-seed products, holds annual sessions and sets standards 
and regulations for these commodities. The following is the 
last standard classification adopted by this association for cotton- 
seed meal. 

Choice Cotton-Seed Meal must be finely ground, perfectly sound 
and sweet in odor, yellow, free from excess of lint, and by 
analysis must contain 8 per cent, of ammonia, or 49 per cent, of 
combined protein and fat. 

Prime Cotton-Seed Meal must be finely ground, of sweet odor, 
reasonably bright in color, yellow, not brown or reddish, free 
from lint, and by analysis must contain at least 7^ per cent, of 
ammonia, or 46 per cent, of combined protein and fat. 

Good Cotton-Seed Meal must be finely ground, of sweet odor, 
reasonably bright in color, and by analysis must contain at least 
7 per cent, of ammonia, or 43 per cent, of combined protein 
and fat. 

Chemical Classification. — The writer uses the following classi- 
fication. The protein equivalents of the ammonia standards are 
taken instead of combining the protein and fat. The color, odor 
and fat contents are not considered because the purchaser can 
easily distinguish a meal that is off in color and odor and most 
of the meal contains enough fat for feeding purposes. 

Choice Cotton-Seed Meal calls for 8 per cent, ammonia, which 
is equivalent to 41.15 per cent, of protein; that is, all meals car- 
rying 41.15 per cent, protein or over are called choice. 

Prime Cotton-Seed Meals are those carrying 7.5 per cent, am- 
monia, which is equivalent to 38.5 per cent, protein. Hence 
all meals between 38.5 and 41.15 per cent, protein are prime. 

Good Cotton-Seed Meal carries 7 per cent, ammonia, which is 



CLASSES OF COMMERCIAL FEEDS 



93 



equivalent to 36 per cent, protein. Meals between 36 and 38.5 
per cent, protein are good. 

For feeding purposes a bright yellow meal free from an excess 
of lint and hulls, and sweet in odor, should be selected. The 
dark color of cotton-seed meal may be due to careless handling 
and storage, fermentation before the seed is treated in the oil 
mill, or to overheating in cooking. These causes tend to lower 
the digestibility or palatability of the feed. 

The manufacturers sell these three classes as cotton-seed meal 
and not as choice, prime and good. The chemist makes these 
distinctions. 

Composition of Cotton-Seed Meal 



Composition in per cent. 



Fat 

(ether 
extract) 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 



Fiber 



No. of 
samples 



Choice 
Prime . 
Good.. 



43-12 

39-87 
37.26 



8.92 
8.58 
9. 28 



25.69 
27.23 
28.13 



8.08 

9.86 

11. 14 



7.62 
7.81 
7-50 



6.57 
6.65 
6.69 



1 192 

651 
116 



A decrease in protein is accompanied by an increase in nitro- 
gen free extract and fiber. 

Cotton-Seed Feed. — Those cotton-seed meals falling below 36 
per cent, protein are classed as cotton-seed feeds. These feeds 
are made up of varying quantities of cotton-seed meal, lint and 
hulls. If such a feed is desired it is perhaps cheaper for the 
feeder to purchase the meal and hulls separately and mix them 
himself. Cotton-seed feeds are, as a class, more expensive than 
cotton-seed meal, for the amount of protein received. The range 
of the feeds of this class is generally from 18 to 36 per cent. 

protein, 4 to 10 per cent, fat and 11 to 26 per cent, fiber. 
Average Composition of Cotton-Seed Feed 





Composition in per cent. 




Protein 


Fat 

(ether 
extract) 


Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 


Fiber 


Water 


Ash 


No. of 
Samples 


Cotton-seed feed • • 


28.50 


6.81 


32.71 


18.32 


8.06 


5.60 


48 



94 



ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



There are some feeds sold that have the following approxi- 
mate composition. 



Protein 
Per cent. 



Fat 

(ether 

extract) 

Percent. 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 
Per cent. 



Fiber 
Per cent 



Water 
Per cent 



Ash 
Pet cent, 



Cotton-seed feed 



24 



Rice Bran. — Sometimes rice hulls are introduced into this feed 
and the resulting product is sold as rice bran. The presence of 
rice hulls, when unground, is easy to detect with the naked eye, 
and when the per cent, of hulls is high, the feed should not be 
used, as the rice hulls may be injurious to the digestive organs 
of the animal to which the mixture is fed. A rice bran should 
smell sweet and one that has a rancid odor should be avoided. 
A high fat content, which is usually the cause of rancidity, is 
thought to retard digestion. Good rice bran should contain 
12.50 per cent, protein and not over 10 per cent, fiber or ash. 
Composition of Rice Bran and Hulls 





Composition in per ctnt. 




Protein 


Fat 
(ether 
extract) 


Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 


Fiber 


Water 


Ash 


Rice bran (standard) 

Rice bran (673 samples) . . 


12.50 
II. 91 

3-5o 


IO.83 
O.49 


44.06 
26.86 


IO 

12.95 

41.89 


IO.27 
8.97 


IO 

9.98 
18.29 





Rice Polish. — The best rice polish is a pure white powdery 
substance free from grits and rice hulls. The rice hulls are 
easily detected, and the grits when present may be found by 
rubbing a small portion between the fingers. The grits are not 
very objectionable as they are never present in great amounts, 
as a higher price is obtained for grits from the brewers. The 
only objection to grits is that they are small and hard and are 
apt to escape mastication and digestion. Rice hulls are only 
occasionally present in polish and then only in small amounts. 
Sometimes rice polish has a red cast due to the presence of 



CLASSES OF COMMERCIAL FEEDS 95 

red rice, a weed which grows in the rice field, but the amount 




Fig. 9.— Honduras and Japan rice. 



present does not materially lower the feeding value of 
product. 



this 



96 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 
Composition of Rice Polish 









Composition in per cent. 








Protein 


Fat 
(ether 
extract) 


Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 


Fiber 


Water 


Ash 


No. of 

samples 




II.94 


8.30 


63.01 


I.90 


IO -33 


4.52 


386 



In the above samples of rice polish the protein varied from 
10 to 15.5 per cent., the fat from 4.5 to 14.3 per cent, and the 
fiber from 0.4 to 5.0 per cent. 

Wheat Mixed Feed is a mixture of wheat bran and wheat 
middlings in varying proportions and it should contain 16 per 
cent, of protein. This feed is sometimes called shipstuff, al- 
though this latter name is applied to any wheat feed, ground 
fine. 

Analyses of Some Pure Wheat Products 









Composition in per cent. 






Class 


Protein 


Fat 

(ether 

extract) 


Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 


Fiber 


Water 


Ash 


No. of 
samples 


Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings. . 
Wheat mixed feed • 


l6.2I 

17-57 
17.08 


4.IO 
4-52 
4.01 


53-9 6 
57-27 
55-59 


9.06 
5.60 
7.6l 


IO.25 
IO.50 
IO.30 


6.42 
4-54 
5-4i 


2533 

5o6 

52 



Wheat Admixtures are made up of wheat products, corn, 
ground corn cobs, corn bran, rice products, oat hulls, ground 
peanut hulls, etc. A wheat admixture is not sold under this 
name but as mixed feed, shipstuff, or under some trade name 
as Dixie Feed, etc., and for example may contain wheat screen- 
ings, ground wheat bran, corn bran and rice bran. 

In purchasing this class of feed the consumer generally pays 
almost as much as for the genuine wheat products. Most of 
these feeds are so finely ground that it is almost impossible 
to distinguish them from wheat shorts, unless the purchaser 
is very familiar with the physical appearance of wheat products. 
There is no doubt that many of these feeds are sold as pure 



CLASSES OF COMMERCIAL FEEDS 



97 



wheat products. These feeds are too expensive for the eco- 
nomical feeder. Wheat feeds should be avoided that are guar- 
anteed to contain less than 15 per cent, protein. 

Average Analysis of Wheat Admixture 





Composition in per cent. 




Protein 


Fat 

(ether 

extract) 


Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 


Fiber 


Water 


Ash 


No. of 
samples 


Wheat admixture . 


13.06 


4.06 


53-89 


12-34 


9-85 


6.80 


506 



SECTION XVIII. 



CLASSES OF COMMERCIAL FEEDS— Continued 
Corn Chops, as found on the American market, are the cracked 
grains of corn. Some of this feed is made up of inferior corn 
and sometimes may contain ground corn cobs. To be of good 
standard quality this feed should contain 9 per cent, protein, 
should be free from fermentation and adulteration, should smell 
sweet and look clean, and be made from sound grains of corn. 
A close physical examination will reveal the quality of this 
material to a great extent. 

Average Analysis of Corn Chops 





Composition in per cent. 




Protein 


Fat 
(ether 
extract) 


Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 


Fiber 


Water 


Ash 


No. of 
samples 




9.19 


3-79 


72.20 


2.l6 


II.28 


1-38 


6329 



Mixed Oats and Barley. — On account of the high price of oats, 
barley (which is cheaper and heavier) is often mixed with oats 
and sold as No. 2 oats or as mixed oats and barley. Much 
of this class of goods is made of inferior oats, 5 to 40 per cent, 
of barley, and sometimes contains weed seeds. The barley grain 
is smaller than the oat grain and can be easily detected. The 
off grade oats may be distinguished by their color or their 
shrunken or shriveled appearance. The presence of weed seeds 
is easily noticed. 

Analyses of Oats, Barley and Mixed Oats and Barley 



Composition in per cent. 



Fat I Nitrogen 

(ether I free ex 

extract) tract 



Fiber 



Ash 



No of 
samples 



Oats 

Barley 

Mixed oats and 
barley 



n. 8 

12.4 

10.84 



5 
1.8 

3.68 



59-7 
69.8 

64.06 



9-5 
2.7 

9.8 



11. o 
10.9 

8.1 



3-o 
2.4 



3-52 



414 



CLASSES OF COMMERCIAL FEEDS 



99 



Corn and Oat Feeds.— These feeds, sometimes called chop 
feeds, are made up of factory products or waste products, 
with corn and oats. Many of these feeds contain oat hulls 
and most of them carry i to 2 per cent, salt to make them more 
palatable. 

Provender is a name used in the New England States for 
feeds composed of ground corn and oats. 

Fortified Oat Feed. — A feed is said to be fortified when some 
protein concentrate (highly nitrogenous feed) is added to it. 
Hence fortified oat feed is made up of oat feed and some pro- 
tein concentrate. 

Analyses of Oats, Corn, Oat Hulls and Corn and Oat Feed 



Oats 

Corn 

Oat hulls 

Corn and oat feed. 



Composition in per cent. 



II. 8 
IO.3 
3-3 
8-57 



Fat j Nitrogen 
(ether ■ free ex 
extract) tract 



5 
5 

3-82 



59-7 
70.4 

52.1 
64.63 



Fiber 



9-5 

2.2 
29.7 
9-77 



11. o 
10.6 

7-3 
9.69 



Ash 



3-° 
1-5 

6.7 

3-52 



No. of 
samples 



I.256 



Molasses Feeds are sometimes called sugar feeds or molasses 
grains. There are many combinations of materials introduced 
in these feeds, governed principally by the intelligence and hon- 
esty of the manufacturers. The location, demand, ease of ob- 
taining, and price of the feeding materials that go to make up 
the finished product are also important considerations in the 
selection. 

Products Used. — Cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, malt sprouts, 
dried brewers' grains, distillery products, rice products, corn 
products, ground corn cobs, ground corn stalks, corn pith, wheat 
products (generally wheat screenings), dried beet pulp, oats 
(generally off grade), oat hulls, barley products, buckwheat 
products, finely ground or chopped hay (usually leguminous 
hays, such as alfalfa, clover, etc.), straw, flax feed, elevator dust 
(including grain smut, all sorts of brushings and cleanings, such as 
dust, grain rust, etc.), sweepings, grain screenings, refuse from 



IOO ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



flouring mills, cockle seeds and bran, ground peanut hulls, weed 
seeds (ground and unground), chaff from pipe factories and 
similar products together with beet, cane and sorghum mo- 
lasses are used in these feeds in varying proportions. Some of 
the molasses feeds contain beet or cane molasses entirely. When 
beet molasses is used it is generally accompanied with a small 
amount of cane molasses and occasionally sorghum molasses, 
to give the feed a pleasant aroma. In most of these feeds, es- 
pecially those manufactured in the North, beet molasses pre- 
dominates. The quantity of molasses employed in these feeds 
varies from 10 to 60 per cent. About 1 per cent, of salt is 
added to improve the palatability. 

Classes of Molasses Feeds. — Those feeds carrying 25 per cent. 
or more of molasses are usually classed as wet feeds (provided 
they are not artificially dried), and those containing less than 
25 per cent, of molasses are termed dry feeds. There are many 
feeds that contain more than 25 per cent, of molasses which are 
subjected to a drying process and these are classed as dry feeds. 

Wet Molasses Feeds are generally sticky and of darker color 
than other molasses feeds, due to the large amount of molasses 
present. 

Analyses of Wet Molasses Feeds in Per Cent. 



Protein 

Ether extract (fat 
N. free extract . . 

Fiber 

Water 

Ash. 



I 


II 


III 


IV 


11.69 


12.88 


15-95 


6.52 


0.54 


0.74 


2-75 


1.79 


43-33 


36.94 


49-45 


5^-92 


19.23 


21.16 


10.86 


14-97 


16. 4t 


18.47 


16.10 


14.20 


8.80 


9.81 


4.89 


10.60 



15.60 

3.82 

45.32 

12.01 

16.65 
6.60 



Note the high water content in all of these feeds. The ether 
extract is low in all but sample No. 5. 

Horse and Dairy Feeds. — There are two general classes of 
molasses feeds sold to our feeders, namely, horse feeds and 
dairy feeds. Molasses feeds for other classes of live stock are 
also manufactured, but these are exceptional. 

The dry molasses dairy feeds found on the American market 
usually contain from 14 to 18 per cent, protein, 3 to 7 per cent. 



CLASSES OF COMMERCIAL FEEDS 



IOI 



fat, 8 to 20 per cent, fiber, 7 to 12 per cent, water and 44 to 54 
per cent, nitrogen free extract. In other words these feeds run 
high in protein. The dry molasses horse or mule feeds carry- 
more nitrogen free extract and less protein than the dry dairy 
feeds. The protein generally varies from 8.5 to 14 per cent., 
fat 1.5 to 8 per cent., fiber 6 to 20 per cent., water 8 to 13 
per cent., and nitrogen free extract 40 to 62 per cent. 

Approximate Average Composition of American Dry 
Moeasses Feeds 





Composition in per cent. 




Protein 


Fat 
(ether 
extract) 


Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 


Fiber 


Water 


Ash 




16.38 
n.95 


4-31 
4.80 


49.26 
51.40 


12-33 
I3.03 


IO.50 
II.62 


7.20 
7.22 







There are many excellent molasses feeds on our markets free 
from adulteration, but the molasses offers an excellent chance 
for the use and concealment of inferior products. 

Feed Mixtures. — Under this head come those feeds which are 
made up of mixtures of alfalfa, dried brewers' grains, corn 
products, oat products, gluten feed, wheat products, rice prod- 
ucts, barley products, cotton seed products, flaxseed products, 
etc. Most of these feeds have alfalfa, corn products and oat 
products present and may contain one or more other ingredients. 
As in molasses feeds, the best grades of primary products are 
not always used, and materials as oat hulls, off grade oats and 
off grade corn are sometimes found in these feed mixtures. 
They are sometimes called proprietary feeds because the name 
of the feed does not indicate the ingredients present. The prin- 
cipal classes of feed mixtures are, horse or mule or ox feeds 
and dairy feeds. A few calf feeds are also on our markets. 
The horse, mule and ox feeds are the most common, and usually 
run from 9 to 13 per cent, protein, 3 to 6 per cent, fat and 6 
to 18 per cent, fiber The dairy feeds generally vary from 13.5 
to 20 per cent, protein, 3.5 to 5.5 per cent, fat and 10 to 15 
per cent, fiber. 



102 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 
Approximate Average Composition of Feed Mixtures 



Dairy . 
Horse- 



Composition in per cent. 



14.O 
II. O 



Fat 

(ether 
extract) 



4.0 
3-5 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 



52.8 
57-7 



Fiber 



15 
14 



5-2 

4.8 



The protein, fat and fiber contents are generally less and the 

nitrogen free extract more in the horse than the dairy feeds. 

Most of these feeds contain salt in small amounts and are sold 
under trade names. 

Poultry Feeds are composed of mixtures of corn (whole or 
cracked), Kaffir corn, wheat, wheat by-products, broken rice, 
oats, oat refuse, cotton seed meal, linseed meal, ground legum- 
inous hay (usually alfalfa and sometimes clover), peas, millet 
seeds, rye, sunflower seeds, barley, flax seeds, molasses, weed 
seeds, animal by-products, sweepings, shells, grit, charcoal, some- 
times salt and other products and waste products. 

These feeds should be purchased on the protein content, as 
this nutrient is generally what poultry require. Eggs are made 
up largely of protein and the common food given to poultry is 
generally lacking in this constituent. Shells, grit, and charcoal 
are present in some of these feeds and usually these materials 
can be purchased cheaper by therhselves than in a poultry food. 
The per cent, of ash is an indication of the shell and grit con- 
tent, and these feeds should not carry over 6 per cent. ash. 
Unground weed seeds are sometimes found in these feeds. Such 
material should not be used in these mixtures, as they are a 
means of scattering weeds all over the country. Some brands 
contain sweepings and the consumer should not purchase such 
adulterated feeds, but should demand a cleaner article. 

A close physical examination will reveal a great deal as to 
the character of these feeds. Avoid feeds which contain sweep- 
ings, grit, and an excess of shells, and purchase only those feeds 
which smell sweet and show a good clean appearance. 



CLASSES OE COMMERCIAL FEEDS 



IO3 



Most of our poultry foods are sweet and clean but a few 
always carry sweepings, shells and charcoal. 

Classes of Poultry Feeds. — The principal classes of poultry 
feeds are; 1. Hen feed. 2. Chick feed or scratching grains. 
3. Pigeon feed. 4. Mash. 

Hen feed is usually composed of cracked corn, some of the 
coarser parts or whole seeds and may contain shells, grit and 
charcoal. Chick feeds are similar to hen feeds except the prod- 
uct is in a finer mechanical condition. Pigeon feed is generally 
not so coarse as chick feed and may contain the same materials. 
Mash is a variable product depending upon the materials of 
which it is composed. It usually contains alfalfa or clover 
meal, corn product, oat product, meat scraps or other animal 
by-product, weed seeds, etc. It may contain some of other 
materials as linseed meal, flax feed, wheat products, etc. The 
mash is characterized by carrying more protein than the other 
mentioned feeds. 

Approximate Average Composition of Poultry Feeds 



Composition in per cent. 



Fat 
(ether 
extract) 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 



Ash 



Hen . . 

Chick 

Pigeon 

Mash . 



II 
11 
11 

15 



3 
4-5 



67 
67 
67 
525 



10 
10 
10 
10 



The animal by-products mentioned previously are used a great 
deal in poultry feeding. 

Alfalfa and Clover Meal. — The cured hays of alfalfa and clover 
are ground and put upon the market as alfalfa and clover meal. 
They may be very finely ground but generally the hay is cut in % 
to Yz inch lengths. The manufacturers usually buy these hays 
baled and grind them at their mills. A great deal of alfalfa 
is consumed as chopped alfalfa and alfalfa meal in mixed com- 
mercial feeds. Alfalfa seems to be very popular with the Ameri- 



104 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

can feeders and they often demand that it be present in the 
feeds they purchase. 

Composition of Alfalfa and Clover Meal 



Alfalfa. 
Clover • 



Composition in per cent. 



H 



Fat 

(ether 
extract) 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 



36 
40.5 



Fiber 



29 
27 



9 
8-5 



SECTION XIX. 



FEED STUFF LAWS AND FEED ADULTERANTS 

Importance of State Feed Laws. — On account of the adultera- 
tion of commercial feed stuffs many of our states have passed 
laws to protect the consumers of these commodities. The en- 
forcement of these laws is generally controlled by the Experi- 
ment Stations or the State Boards of Agriculture, through a 
staff of chemists and inspectors. The inspectors draw samples 
of the various feeds and the chemists analyze them to find out if 
they are as represented. The results of the chemists' findings are 
published in bulletins which are sent out to the farmers, manu- 
facturers and other interested parties. 

These laws require the manufacturers and dealers in these 
materials "to state what they sell and sell what they state." Io 
other words they are forced to guarantee their products. Ex- 
ample, John Doe is manufacturing and selling cotton seed meal. 
Before he is allowed to sell his cotton seed meal he must have 
printed on the sacks, or on tags attached to the sacks, the com- 
position of the cotton seed meal, the weight of the package, the 
name, brand, or trade mark, and the manufacturer's or dealer's 
name and address. Let us suppose that John Doe has printed on 
his sacks the following; protein 40 per cent., fat 9 per cent., 
carbohydrates 24 per cent, and fiber 10 per cent. ; weight 100 
lbs. ; cotton seed meal ; manufactured by John Doe, Memphis, 
Tenn. Such a statement is the guarantee. The weight of the 
package is a good requirement in such laws because the pur- 
chaser is enabled to tell just the amount contained in the pack- 
age. Some feeds are put up in 90 pound sacks, for most pur- 
chasers will take it for granted that all feeds are sold in lots of 
75 or 100 pounds or more. Feeds put up in irregular weights 
are generally sold per sack and not by weight. The guarantee 
then protects the consumer. 

Comparison of Some of the Requirements of Feed Laws. — Har- 
ris in a discussion of feed stuff laws says: "Suppose we take, 
for instance, the main feature of every feed law — the guaranteed 
chemical analysis — and see if any uniformity exists here. Cer- 



106 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

tainly not. One state requires a guarantee of protein and fat ; 
a sister state, the minimum per cent, of protein and fat, and adds 
the maximum per cent, of crude fiber; another state will add to 
this carbohydrates ; another starch and sugar, and Michigan 
adds nitrogen free extract. 

"So it seems that there is not even an attempt at uniformity in 
the main feature of these laws. Some states require a license 
tax (i.e. a stipulated amount per brand per year). One state 
requires a license and a tonnage tax (i. c. a brand tax and a tax 
on every ton or part of a ton sold in the state). Some states 
exempt certain feeds from a license fee or tonnage tax ; others 
do not. Some states require standard weight bags ; others do 
not. Where standard weight bags are required, they differ in 
different states (a 75 pound bag of feed can be sold in Tennessee, 
but not in North Carolina). Some states require the ingredients 
to be registered with the state authorities enforcing the law. 
Some states have a standard analysis for different feeds ; others 
do not. The state of Mississippi, for example, requires that a 
feed must contain at least 13.5 per cent, of crude fat and protein 
together; no feed carrying less than 3.5 per cent, fat can be sold; 
all ordinary feeds must not contain over 12 per cent, crude fiber 
except when branded "Cow & Ox Feed," if such feeds contain 
cotton seed or its by-products. Some states have a provision in 
the law that where a feed is found misbranded or adulterated 
it can be siezed, pending an investigation ; other states have no 
provision of this kind. There are a number of states that im- 
pose a fine of from $200 to $500 on a manufacturer whose feed 
fails to come up to the guarantee claimed for it, and fine him 
$25 to $100 for adulterating." Some states prohibit the sale of 
feeds containing oat hulls, rice hulls, peanut hulls, corn cobs, 
and similar materials. Many states do not eliminate these sub- 
stances. 

Uniform Feed Stuff Law. — On account of the lack of uni- 
formity of the several state feed stuff laws there has been a great 
deal of agitation among those: interested in feed stuff trade, and 
a movement has been started to pass a standard feed stuff law. 
The American Feed Manufacturers' Association and state con- 



FEED STUFF EAWS AND FEED ADULTERANTS 107 

trol officials met in Washington, D. C, in Sept. 1909 to discuss 
and if possible draw up a uniform feed stuff law satisfactory to 
all parties concerned in this business. The results of this meet- 
ing brought out the following, that the purchaser should know : — 

1. The name, brand or trade mark. 

2. The weight of the package. 

3. The principal address and name of the manufacturer or 
jobber responsible for placing the feed on the market. 

4. The chemical analysis as, 

Minimum per cent, of crude protein. 
Minimum per cent, of crude fat. 
Maximum per cent, of crude fiber. 

5. If a compounded or mixed feed, the specific name of each 
ingredient of which it is made up. 

Tentative Definitions of Feed Stuffs Recommended by the 
Feed Control Officials 

Meal is the clean, sound, ground product of the entire grain, 
cereal or seed which it purports to represent. Provided, that 
the following meals, qualified by their descriptive names are 
to be known as, viz : Corn germ meal is a product in the manu- 
facture of starch, glucose and other corn products and is the 
germ layer from which a part of the corn oil has been extracted. 
Cotton-seed meal is the meal obtained from the cotton-seed 
kernel after extraction of part of the oil and contains not less 
than 38.50 per cent, of crude protein. Linseed meal is the 
ground residue after extraction of part of the oil from ground 
flaxseed. Bolted corn meal is the entire ground product of 
corn, bolted. 

Grits are the hard, flinty portions of Indian corn. 

Hominy meal, feed or chop is the bran coating and germ of 
the corn kernel and may contain a part of the starchy portion 
of the kernel. 

Corn feed meal is the sifting obtained in the manufacture of 
cracked corn and table meal made from the whole grain. 

Gluten meal is a product obtained in the manufacture of starch 
and glucose from corn and is the flinty portion of the kernel which 



IOS ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

lies in its outer circumference just beneath the hull. If the meal 
is derived from any other cereal, the source must be designated. 
Corn bran is the outer coating of the corn kernel. 
Gluten feed is a product obtained in the manufacture of starch 
and glucose from corn and is a mixture of gluten meal and corn 
bran to which may be added the residue resulting from the 
evaporation of the so-called "steep-water." If derived from any 
other cereal, the source must be designated. 

Wheat bran is the coarse outer coating of the wheat berry. 

Shorts or standard middlings are the fine particles of the outer 
bran as well as the inner or "bee-wing" bran separated from the 
bran and white middlings. 

Shipstuff or wheat mixed feed is a mixture of the by-products 
from the milling of the wheat berry. 

White wheat middlings are that part of the offal from wheat 
left after separating it from the bran and the shorts or standard 
middlings. 

Red dog is a low-grade wheat flour containing the finer parti- 
cles of bran. 

Oat Groats are the kernels of the oat berry with the hulls re- 
moved. 

Oat shorts or oat middlings are the starchy portion of the oat 
groats obtained in the milling of rolled oats. 

Oat hulls are the outer covering of the oat grain. 

Oat clippings are the small hairs, dust and ends of oats 
separated from the oats in the clipping process and may con- 
tain light oats and oat hulls. 

Rice bran is the inner cuticle of the rice hull. 

Rice polish is the flour secured from the surface of the rice 
kernels in polishing. 

Rice meal or flour is the clean ground rice. 

Rice hulls are the outer covering of the rice grain. 

Flaxseed meal is the entire flaxseed ground. 

Flax plant refuse is the flax shives, flax pods, inferior flax 
seeds and the woody portion of the flax plant or any of the above 
materials. 



FL^D STUFF LAWS AND FFFD ADULTERANTS 109 

Buckwheat shorts or middlings are that portion of the buck- 
wheat grain immediately inside of the hull after separation from 
the flour. 

Blood meal is finely ground dried blood. 

Meat meal is finely ground beef scraps. If it bears a name 
descriptive of its kind, composition or origin, it must correspond 
thereto. 

Cracklings are the residue after extracting the fats and oils 
from the animal tissue. If it bears a name descriptive of its 
kind, composition or origin, it must correspond thereto. 

Digester tankage is meat scraps from edible carcasses which 
have been inspected and passed as satisfactory for human con- 
sumption, especially prepared for feeding purposes through 
tanking under live steam, drying under high heat and suitable 
grinding. 

Distillers' dried grains are the dried residue from cereals ob- 
tained in the manufacture of alcohol and distilled liquors. The 
product shall bear a designation indicating the cereal predominat- 
ing. 

Brewers' dried grains are the dried residue from cereals ob- 
tained after "mashing and sparging" the malt. 

Malt sprouts are the sprouts of the barley grain. If the 
sprouts are derived from any other malted cereal, the source must 
be designated. 

Cotton-seed feed shall be a mixture of cotton-seed meal and 
cotton-seed hulls containing less than 38.50 per cent, of crude 
protein and shall be plainly marked "mixture of cotton-seed 
meal and cotton-seed hulls." 

Alfalfa meal is the entire alfalfa hay ground and does not con- 
tain an admixture of ground alfalfa straw or other foreign 
materials. 

Chop is a ground or chop feed composed of one or more 
different cereals or by-products thereof. 

Screenings are the smaller imperfect grains, weed seeds and 
other foreign materials having feeding value, separated in clean- 



IIO ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 

ing the grain. They shall be designated by the name of the seed 
from which they are derived. 

Barley bran is a misnomer. 

Cotton-seed bran is a misnomer. 

Elevator feed is a misnomer. 

Cotton-seed meal feed is a misnomer. 

Cotton-seed feed meal is a misnomer. 

Oat feed is a misnomer unless applied to whole ground oats. 

Flax feed is a misnomer unless applied to whole ground flax- 
seed. 

Flax bran is a misnomer. 

Oat nubbins is a misnomer. 

Buckwheat feed, consisting of buckwheat middlings and bulls, 
is a misnomer. 

Gluten feed as applied to distillers' grains is a misnomer. 

The Federal Law. — The national pure food law also protects 
the purchaser of feeds. All feeds that enter into interstate trade 
are subject to the requirements of this law. The manufacturers 
of feeds are required to sell goods as represented to satisfy this 
law. Example, a manufacturer cannot sell a feed manufactured in 
Texas, in Arkansas, labelled pure wheat bran that contains any 
thins: other than wheat bran, nor can he sell a feed of a stated 
chemical analysis and have it fall materially below it. 

Low Grade By-Product Feeds. — Some states, as heretofore 
stated, do not permit the sale of feeds below certain standards. 
There is considerable difference of opinion as to the advisability 
of such prohibition. Some claim such feeds should be elimina- 
ted so as to furnish all purchasers with feeds of a so-called high 
or standard grade. Others claim that a manufacturer should be 
permitted to sell low grade feeds provided the ingredients that 
make up the feed are stated and there are no injurious or poison- 
ous materials present. We all know that oat hulls, corn cobs, 
screenings, cotton seed hulls, etc., contain some nutritious mate- 
rial and many claim that should the consumer wish to buy feeds 
containing any of these substances it is his own privilege and 
legitimate, when they are stated as being present. Other points 



FEED STUFF EAWS AND FEED ADULTERANTS III 

that are worth considering are, that the prices of grains are 
getting higher and the population of this country is increasing 
so that the feeder may be forced in the future to utilize the 
wastes and low grade by-products to a certain extent. 

Adulteration of Feeds. — If it were not for the protection our 
feed laws give us, we would find it hard to purchase good 
standard products. A manufacturer could easily adulterate his 
feed and sell it for the genuine article if he knew it would not 
be subject to inspection and analysis. For instance, a manu- 
facturer could easily introduce ground cotton seed hulls into his 
cotton seed meal and sell the product with any guarantee he 
pleased. He could sell this mixed product under the name of 
cotton seed meal, when in reality it is cotton seed meal and 
ground cotton seed hulls (cotton seed feed). Of course the 
manufacturer could afford to sell the mixed product at a lower 
price than pure cotton seed meal, but for the nutrients received 
the purchaser would perhaps pay much more than for cotton 
seed meal. Many of the laws permit manufacturers to sell low 
grade products provided they are not injurious, but require that 
the true name or a trade name be employed. Perhaps the manu- 
facturer would not care to put out a mixture of cotton seed meal 
and cotton seed hulls and label it so, but he would rather give it 
a trade or brand name, as Cracker Feed. 

Values of Low Grade Feeds. — The purchasers of low grade 
feeds should know their values. The Experiment Stations or 
the State Boards of Agriculture are continually sending out 
bulletins which comment and set forth the values of commercial 
feeds so there is no excuse for a feeder, in states having feed 
laws, allowing a spurious article to be sold to him. In all feeds 
the principles as cited are true. It is unfortunate but possible, 
for manufacturers to put out feeds that resemble standard 
products, which are badly adulterated. These adulterated feeds 
are generally ground so fine that the casual observer would not 
notice the adulteration. 

Feed Adulterants. — In some of our molasses feeds, wheat ad- 
mixtures, corn and oat feeds, feed mixtures, cotton seed feeds, 
mixed oats and barley, and similar mixtures, materials are often 



112 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



added which are inferior. These inferior materials are called 
adulterants. As a general rule adulterants are added to feeds 
that command high prices and so are disposed of for more than 
they would bring if sold unmixed. 

Composition of Feed Adulterants 



Name of adulterant 



Ground corn cobs .... 

Corn bran 

Oat hulls 

Flax bran 1 

Wheat screenings 

Cotton seed hulls 

Rice hulls 

Peanut hulls 

Flax feed (screenings).. 

Buckwheat hulls 

Weed seeds' 2 



Composition in per cent. 



Fat 

(ether 

extract) 



2.40 


0.50 


9.00 


5- «o 


3-30 


1. 00 


5.63 


3.58 


12.50 


3.00 


6.10 


2.06 


3.50 


0.49 


4-54 


0.78 


I5.S5 


11-57 


3.60 


0.90 


J 3-3o 


7.00 



Nitrogen 
free ex- 
tract 



54-9° 
62.20 
52.IO 

65.IO 
32.91 
26.86 
14.36 

41.91 
38.21 

53-9° 



Fiber 



30.IO 
12.70 
29.70 
41.86 
4.90 
45.IO 
41.89 
66.12 
14.60 
45-30 
11.60 



10.70 
9.00 
7-30 

11.60 
11.06 

8.97 
10.76 

8.18 
10.01 
10.00 



1.40 
1.30 
6.70 

2.90 

2.77 
18.29 

3-44 
7.89 
1.98 
4.20 



These materials are generally ground very fine so that they 
are not easily detected by a physical examination. Sweepings, 
elevator dust, brushings, grain screenings and other wastes are 
used to some extent in our feeds, but there is such variation in 
the composition of these materials that the analyses are not given 
in the table. Corn pith, corn stalks, straws, corn husks, etc., 
are sometimes used. Weed seeds are objectionable because they 
sometimes injure the palatability of the feed to which they are 
added, and they are a source of disseminating objectionable 
weeds when they are added to a feed unground. Unground 
weed seeds often pass through the animal undigested. Some 
states do not permit the use of adulterants as previously ex- 
plained. 

Suggestion: Require the students to secure a copy of the 
State Feed Stuff Law and if your state has no law have them 
obtain the law from some other state. The students should read 
it thoroughly and write a criticism of it. 

1 Bui. 141, Kentucky Exp. Station. 

2 Bui. 131, Indiana Exp. Station. 



SECTION XX. 



A FEW REMARKS ABOUT FEED STUFFS 

Valuation of Feed Stuffs. — It is impossible to arrive at money 
values of feed stuffs as we can with fertilizers. The constituents 
in mixed fertilizers, namely, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and pot- 
ash may be purchased singly, but when we purchase feed stuffs 
we get protein, fats and carbohydrates and cannot purchase any 
one of these nutrients alone, except occasionally carbohydrates 
from cane molasses. There are products on the market as 
sugar, starch, oils, protein substances, etc., which may contain 
single nutrients but these products are too expensive to feed live 
stock. 

There have been many attempts made to secure a money 
valuation for protein, fats and carbohydrates but so far all have 
been unsuccessful. Should corn be taken as a basis and values 
established, these values when applied to the nutrients in cotton 
seed meal are all out of proportion to the selling price of this 
feed. The same principle applies with the nutrients of other 
feeds. If we calculate on the digestible nutrients or dry matter 
in feeds, the results secured have no comparative relation. The 
heat values of feed stuffs may be determined but a money value 
cannot be placed on the heats of combustion, because the nutri- 
ents act in another capacity as repair material, which value can- 
not be ascertained in this way. 

Rebates and Comparative Unit Values. — In some sections of the 
country the purchaser buys feed stuffs on the chemical analyses 
and when they fail to reach the guarantee, rebates are demanded 
to make up for the deficiencies. In Louisiana the writer re- 
ceived so many communications requesting the settlement of re- 
bates on feeds failing to reach their guarantees, that the follow- 
ing method was worked out and is used in the calculation of re- 
bates. 

The nutrients considered are protein, fat and carbohydrates 
(nitrogen free extract). To secure a basis of comparison of 
values, according to composition, one pound of protein is con- 
sidered of the same value as two and one-half pounds of carbo- 



114 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

hydrates, and one pound of fat is considered to be worth as much 
as two and a quarter pounds of carbohydrates. Therefore, to 
secure the total number of units on which the value is based, 
we multiply the protein content by 2.50 and the fat content by 
2.25 and add these products to the carbohydrate content. 

Example. — Let us suppose a commercial feed is sold for $32 
per ton and guaranteed to contain 14 per cent, of protein, 4 per 
cent, of fat and 60 per cent, of carbohydrates. By analysis we find 
12.30 per cent, of protein, 3.80 per cent, of fat and 62 per cent, 
of carbohydrates. Then the percentages of protein, fat and 
carbohydrates as guaranteed, multiplied by their respective unit 
values will give the unit values guaranteed of each of these 
nutrients. The addition of these will give us the total unit value 
guaranteed. In other words, 14 (the per cent, of protein guar- 
anteed) multiplied by 2.50 (the unit value for protein) gives us 
35.00 (or the unit value of protein guaranteed). 

4 (the per cent, of fat guaranteed) multiplied by 2.25 (the unit 
value of fat) gives us 9.00 (or the unit value of fat guaranteed). 

60 (the per cent, of carbohydrates guaranteed) multiplied by 
1. 00 (the unit value of carbohydrates) gives us 60.00 (or the 
unit value of carbohydrates guaranteed). 

That is : 

14 X 2.50 = 35.00 

4 X 2.25 = 9-00 

60 X 1.00 = 60.00 

Total unit value guaranteed . = 104.00 

In a similar manner we arrive at the total units found. 
Example : 

12.30 x 2.50 = 30.75 

3.80 x 2.25 == 8.55 

62.00 X i-oo = 62.00 

Total unit value found =101.30 

That is, the purchaser was guaranteed 104 units for $32 a ton, 
but he received only 101.30 units. 

Then 104 (the unit value guaranteed) is to 101.30 (the unit 



A EEW REMARKS ABOUT EEED STUEES 115 

value found) as 32 (the contract price per ton) is to (the actual 
price to be paid per ton). 
In other words: 

104 : 101.30 = 32 : X 104 X = 3241.60 
X = 31.17, or the actual price that should be paid per ton. 
$32 — $31.17 = $0.83, the rebate per ton. 

Impossible to Consider Digestibility. — It is impossible to con- 
sider the digestibilities of the nutrients in the several mixed 
feeds, because of the enormous expenditure of money and work 
necessary to determine these percentages. Again the primary 
products that go to make up these feeds are often changing. For 
example, a mixed feed will be inspected that is made up of corn, 
rice bran, rice polish, cotton seed meal, and cane molasses. In 
a month from the above inspection, the same company will change 
the ingredients of this same brand of feed, so that it consists of 
corn, wheat bran, alfalfa and cane molasses, and the guarantee 
and the name of the brand will remain unchanged. Under such 
conditions it is impossible to consider anything except the chemi- 
cal analysis. The market prices, demand, ease of obtaining, 
location, etc. of the available primary products seem to determine 
the ingredients that are used in mixed feeds. 

No Other Feed Should be Considered in Settlement. — Some 
agents have tried to settle rebates by figuring a mixed feed as 
valuable as some other feed as oats for example. Oats may be 
selling for $36 per ton and his feed for $32 per ton, and yet the 
per cent, of protein, fat and carbohydrates may be about the same 
in the two feeds. When a feed is sold to contain a given per 
cent, of protein, fat and carbohydrates for a fixed price, the re- 
bate should be calculated on this basis and no other feed should 
be considered in the settlement. 

Values Only Approximate. — The ■> student should understand 
that the unit values for protein, fat and carbohydrates as given 
are only approximate, but are used by the trade in certain sec- 
tions, in settling rebates, and seem to give general satisfaction. 

Overages and Deficiencies. — The student may wish to know 
why allowance is made for overage in certain nutrients and 



I l6 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

deficiencies in others. It may be said that such is permissible 
within reasonable limits. The manufacturers of feeds intend to 
guarantee their products as true to the actual composition as 
possible. Most of the manufacturers try to give a little more 
nutrients than guaranteed, so that the feed will meet the guarantee 
under reasonable conditions. Sometimes a feed will run above 
the guarantee in one nutrient and low in the other two, or it may 
run above in two nutrients and low in one ; but it hardly ever 
falls below the guarantee in all three nutrients. If the chemical 
analysis approximates the guarantee, the system as laid down 
for figuring rebates is permissible. The composition of the feed 
stuffs found on the American market will usually come within 
reasonable limits of their guarantees. 

How to Buy a Feed. — You have learned that many of our 
feeds vary considerably in composition and therefore do not buy 
cotton seed meal, linseed meal, wheat bran, etc. just because they 
are so named. In purchasing feed stuffs consult the standards as 
given for the several feeds in the previous sections, and send for 
a bulletin from your State Experiment Station or from the State 
Board of Agriculture, which may contain analyses of the prod- 
ucts you intend to buy. After familiarizing yourself with what 
the feed should contain, ask your feed dealer for the guarantee, 
i. e. the chemical analysis and weight of the package. If the 
feed or feeds you want to purchase are below the standards as 
set forth in your state bulletin or in the table of standards in this 
book, do not purchase. There are many dealers and merchants 
who purchase the cheapest feeds possible, regardless of their 
value, and sell these inferior feeds to their customers for near- 
ly as high a price as high class feeds bring. They do this to 
make greater profits. 

Before purchasing any feed the purchaser should know the 
kind of feed that is needed for his economical use. If con- 
siderable molasses, corn, roughage (native hay, corn stover, etc.) 
are on hand, a feed rich in protein should be secured. For ex- 
ample, if plenty of carbohydrate feeds are on hand, as corn and 
grass hay, it would be a waste of money to purchase a feed rich 
in carbohydrates and in all probability the results of feeding such 



A FEW REMARKS ABOUT FEED STUFFS 



117 



combinations would be unsatisfactory. The selling price and the 
name of a feed do not indicate its suitability for the needs of the 
purchaser. Often the cheapest feeds are the most expensive for 
the nutrients received and sometimes the reverse is true. 

Classes of Feeds. — The table following shows the principal 
feeds found on the American market arranged in classes accord- 
ing to their protein content. 



Class I 



Class III 



Class IV 



Class V 



f 

I 

Class II { 



f Cotton-seed meal 
Linseed meal 
Gluten meal 
Dried distillers' grains 

Gluten feed 
Malt sprouts 
Cotton-seed feed 
Dried brewers' grains 
Germ oil meal 

f Wheat middlings (flour) 
Wheat middlings (standard) 
Wheat mixed feed (bran and shorts' 
Oat middlings 
Wheat bran 
Flax feed 

Molasses dry dairy feed 
Rye feed 

Feed mixture (dairy) 
Alfalfa meal (whole plant) 

Wheat admixture 

R ice bran 

Clover meal (whole plant) 

Fortified oat feed 

Rice polish 

Molasses dry horse feed 

Feed mixture (horse and mule) 

Ground oats 

Ground wheat 

Barley meal 

Rye meal 

Hominy feed 

Mixed oats and barley 

Provender 



I 

f Feed meal 
Corn bran 

I Corn meal 

j Corn chops 

J Corn and oat feed 

I Oat feed 

j Dried beet pulp 

I Beet molasses 



1 30-50 per cent. 

! protein 

j 23-49 per cent. 

J carbohydrates 



1 



20-30 per cent. 

protein 
35-55 per cent. 

carbohydrates 



14-20 per cent. 

protein 
35-65 per cent. 

carbohydrates 



10-14 per cent. 

protein 
35" 6 5 per cent. 

carbohydrates 



8-10 per cent, 
protein 
5°-75 per cent, 
carbohydrates 



Il8 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

The liays from grasses, dry fodders, straws, and cane molasses 
would probably be considered as carbohydrate feeds although it 
must be remembered that they do not contain as much protein 
as the feeds included in Class V. 

This table may be found useful in the selection of feeds. 
Classes I and II are especially rich in protein and may be classed 
as protein feeds. Classes III and IV may be termed protein and 
carbohydrate feeds. Class V includes the carbohydrate feeds. 

Conversion Factors. — Some products are used for fertilizer 
and feed, and when sold may be guaranteed to contain only 
nitrogen or ammonia. The following factors will be useful in 
obtaining equivalents of nitrogen, ammonia and protein: 

One per cent, nitrogen = 1.2154 per cent, ammonia = 6.25 per cent, 
protein. 

One per cent, ammonia = .823 per cent, nitrogen = 5.14 per cent, 
protein. 

One per cent, protein = .16 per cent, nitrogen = .1945 P er cent, ammonia. 
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 

5.44 nitrogen = 6.61 ammonia = 34 protein 
5-6o 6.81 35 

5.76 7.00 36 

5-91 7-19 37 

6.08 7.40 38 



6.24 


7.59 


39 


6.40 


7.78 


40 


6.56 


7.98 


4i 


6.72 


8.17 


42 



Example.— Cotton-seed meal, carrying 6.58 per cent, of nitrogen, is 
equivalent to cotton-seed meal containing 6.58 X T -2i54 or 8 -°° P er cent - 
ammonia and 6.58 X 6.25 or 41.12 per cent, protein. A feed containing 15 
per cent, protein is equivalent to a feed containing 15 X -^945 or 2 -9 2 P er 
cent, ammonia and 15 X • 16 or 2.40 per cent, nitrogen. 

Condimental Feeds. — There are a great many of these feeds 
sold in this country. They are made up of mixtures of sulphur, 
salt, saltpeter, Epsom salts, Glauber's salts, sodium bicarbonate, 
fenugreek seeds, fennel seeds, ginger, turmeric, gentian powder, 
charcoal, red and black peppers, ground bone, Venetian red, anise, 
oyster shells and similar products, generally with some feed as 
a basis, in varying proportions. These feeds generally carry 



A FEW REMARKS ABOUT FEED STUFFS II9 

attractive names and the manufacturers make great claims re- 
garding their curative properties. 

The following is taken from Bui. 106, Mass. Exp. Station. 

"Cost and Selling Price Compared. — None of the mineral drugs 
Used in these feeds except nitre, cost much over a cent a pound, 
and the vegetable drugs vary in price from 3 to 12 cents a pound. 
The cost of condimental feeds rarely exceeds 2 to 3 cents a pound. 
The retail prices vary from 6 to 25 cents a pound, depending on 
the \ brand and quantity purchased. Condition powders are 
much higher priced, from 30 cents to $1 a pound. 

Value. — "The food value of these feeds has been shown by 
experiments to be no greater than that of ordinary grains of 
which they are largely composed. Their medicinal value de- 
pends largely upon the aromatic seeds and roots used as a tonic 
for the stomach, on charcoal as an absorbent, and on the purga- 
tive effect of the Epsom or Glauber's salts. The quantity re- 
commended to be fed daily is usually so small (one ounce or less) 
that very little effect can be expected unless the material is fed 
for a considerable length of time. While it is probably true that 
some of these stock foods may prove beneficial under certain con- 
ditions, it is also true that most of them are heterogeneous mix- 
tures and evidently put together by parties quite ignorant of the 
principles of animal physiology, pathology and veterinary medi- 
cine. 

"Dr. Paige, very pointedly expresses the most advanced views 
of the veterinary profession when he says, animals in a state of 
health do not need condition powders or tonic foods. There is in 
the body of a healthy animal a condition of equilibrium of all 
body functions. The processes of digestion and assimilation are 
at their best. All that is required to maintain this condition of 
balance, is that the animal be kept under sanitary conditions and 
receive a sufficient supply of healthful nutritive food and pure 
water. While tonics may improve the appetite so that the animal 
will temporarily consume and digest more food, should this in- 
creased quantity of nutrients consumed not be appropriated by 
the tissues of the body, harm may result from thus over-loading 



120 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

the lymphatic system, or from an increased action of the excret- 
ing organs." 

Treatment. — Bartlett of the Maine Experiment Station rec- 
ommends the following when a tonic is required. "Pulverized 
gentian, one pound ; pulverized ginger, ]/\ pound ; pulverized 
saltpeter, *4 pound; pulverized iron sulphate, ]/ 2 pound. Mix 
and give one tablespoonful in the feed once a day for ten days, 
omit for three days, then give ten days more. The cost of this 
tonic is 20 cents a pound." 

If animals are sick it is cheaper to consult a veterinarian than 
to take any chances with tonics. 

Experiments conducted at other Experiment Stations on con- 
dimental feeds and condition powders have demonstrated that 
the economical feeder cannot afford to purchase them. 

Suggestion : Take the class to a feed store or feed stores, and 
have the students examine the commercial feeds on sale. Re- 
quire them to copy the guarantees, selling prices, names of the 
feeds and addresses of the manufacturers or jobbers. Have them 
compare the data obtained with the standards as set forth in the 
state bulletin or in this book. Let them figure the cost of the 
feeds per ton and classify them. Take the class around to the 
feed and drug stores and see what condimental feeds are for 
sale. Make a list of them and ascertain their prices. Have 
them figure the ton prices of these feeds. 

Require the students to make a physical examination of all the 
feeds stating their ingredients. 



SECTION XXI. 



COMPOSITION AND DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS OF FEED STUFFS 
AND THE NUTRITIVE RATIO. 

Composition of Feeds. — We have already stated the meaning 
and functions of the nutritive elements contained in plants and 
animals. The next thing- is to become more familiar with the 
composition and digestibility of feeds. The chemist has already 
worked out these for us and he expresses the composition as 
follows : 

Composition of Corn (Grain) in Per Cent. 



Protein 


Fat (ether 
extract) 


Nitrogen free 
extract 


Fiber 


Water 


Ash 


IO.3 


5-o 


70.4 


2.2 


IO.6 


i-5 



The above analysis is very simply translated. It means that 
in every 100 pounds of corn grain, there are 10.3 lbs. of protein, 
5 lbs. of fat, 70.4 lbs. of nitrogen free extract, 2.2 lbs. of fiber, 
10.6 lbs. of water and 1.5 lbs. of ash. Or there are 10.6 lbs. of 
water and 89.4 lbs. of dry matter. 

Digestibility of Feeds. — Knowing the composition of feeds, it 
is now necessary to become acquainted with the actual amounts 
of the nutrients (protein, fat, nitrogen free extract and fiber), 
that the animal can assimilate. The digestibility of any food is 
determined by analyzing and finding its chemical composition, 
namely the per cent, of protein, ether extract, nitrogen free ex- 
tract, fiber, water and ash, and feeding weighed portions of this 
food to animals for a given period and at regular intervals. The 
feces or manure is collected, weighed and analyzed. The differ- 
ence between the dry matter fed and the dry matter cast off as 
manure, is taken as digestible. This procedure seems very simple 
but it requires a great deal of work, and the results received are 
not always satisfactorily accurate. 

Digestibility not Always Accurate. — The true digestibility of 
the protein and fats is the most difficult to ascertain. We know 
9 



122 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

that nitrogenous compounds present in wastes that are passed 
oft' in the processes of digestion, such as the wastes from mucus, 
bile, digestive juices, etc., have no connection with the protein of 
the food in the experiment. It seems that the smaller the per 
cent, of protein in the food, as in hay or straw for example, the 
greater are the amounts of these waste products in the manure. 
The writer conducted some digestion experiments on Bermuda 
and lespedeza (Japan clover) hays of low quality, and found in 
some cases when other feeds as cotton-seed meal, corn chops and 
molasses were fed with these hays, a negative digestibility for the 
protein of these hays. It is reasonable to suppose that some of 
the protein in these hays was digested. The digestibility of fat 
is difficult to arrive at because the wastes from the bile, which are 
present in the feces, are soluble in ether, which extracts matter 
that is calculated as fat. The digestibility of the same kind of 
feed is perhaps influenced by several factors such as season, 
climate, fertilizer, curing, handling, etc., so that the digestibility 
of a feed may vary with these conditions. 

From the foregoing we can readily understand that the di- 
gestibilities as given in Table I are perhaps not always accurate, 
yet they serve in giving us an approximate value of feed stuffs. 

The Per Cent. Digestible is often spoken of as the coefficient 
of digestibility. In order to acquaint the student with a full 
understanding of digestibility let us take the digestibility of corn 
for example. 
Coefficient of Digestibility or Digestibility of Corn in Per Cent. 



Protein 


Ether extract 
(fat) 


Nitrogen free 
extract 


Fiber 


76 


86 


93 


58 



That is, in 100 lbs. of the grain of corn, j6 per cent, of the 
10.3 lbs. of protein is digestible, 86 per cent, of the 5 lbs. of fat 
is digestible, 93 per cent, of the 70.4 lbs. of nitrogen free extract 
is digestible and 58 per cent, of the 2.2 lbs. of fiber is digestible. 
We can represent this in another way by stating the total pounds 
of digestible nutrients in 100 lbs. of corn grain. 




Fig. io.— I,espedeza (Japan clover). 



124 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 
Total Pounds Digestible Nutrients in ioo Lbs. of Corn Grain 



Protein 


Ether extract 

(fat) 


Nitrogen free 
extract 


Fiber 


7.8 


4-3 


65-5 


i-3 



The digestible fiber is generally added to the digestible nitro- 
gen free extract and called digestible carbohydrates. In this 
case then the digestible carbohydrates of corn grain would be 
65.5 -(- 1.3 — 66.8 lbs. As mentioned previously the water is 
not considered a nutrient as it can be supplied so much cheaper 
by itself. The ash is also omitted because most of our feeds 
contain enough of this substance for the needs of the animal. 

Necessity of Composition and Digestibility. — There are several 
feeds which have practically the same chemical composition but 
different percentages of digestibility. Therefore to ascertain the 
real feeding value of a feed the composition and digestibility 
should be known. 

Nutritive Ratio. — The ratio between the digestible protein 
and the digestible carbohydrates -+- the digestible fats, is called 
the nutritive ratio. This ratio is obtained in the following 
manner. The per cent, of digestible fat is multiplied by 2.25, 
to reduce it to terms of carbohydrates. It was previously ex- 
plained that the fuel value of fat is 2.25 times that of carbo- 
hydrates. This product is then added to the per cent, of digesti- 
ble carbohydrates which gives us the total carbohydrates. This 
sum is divided by the per cent, of digestible protein, 

(digestible fat X 2.25) -j- digestible carbohydrates 



Example : 



= nutritive ratio. 



digestible protein 



To explain this more clearly let us take the digestibility of 
corn grain, as just cited in this section. 

Digestible fat (4.3) X fuel value (2.25) = Carbohydrate 
equivalent (9.675). 

Digestible carbohydrates (66.8) -+- 9.675 — Total digestible 
carbohydrates (76.475). 



COMPOSITION AND DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS 



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126 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



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COMPOSITION AND DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENTS I35 

Total digestible carbohydrates (76.475) -=- digestible protein 
(7.8) = 9 .8. 

Nutritive ratio in this case is 1 : 9.8. 

Table of Composition and Digestible Nutrients. — The composi- 
tion and digestible nutrients of feed stuffs are given in Table' I. 
The results in this table are the work of Foreign and American 
investigators. 

Suggestion : Make the students determine the coefficients 
of digestibility of several feeds. Assume some percentages of 
digestibility for protein, fat and carbohydrates and have the 
students work out the nutritive ratios. If a cow is fed 6 lbs. of 
corn and cob meal a day what per cent, of protein, fat, and carbo- 
hydrates does it digest? 



SECTION XXII. 



FEEDING STANDARDS. 

The amount of digestible protein, digestible fat and digestible 
carbohydrates required per day for animals of 1,000 lbs. live 
weight, for different purposes, is called the "Feeding Standard." 

The table of feeding standards is based on the work of foreign 
investigators and is arranged after Armsby. American investi- 
gators think that these standards call for more protein than is 
required for our conditions and hence a reduction is sometimes 
recommended to secure the best results. However, the prices 
of protein and carbohydrates, which will be taken up later, have 
a great deal to do with the make up of a ration. 

Henry in his valuable book on "Feeds and Feeding," says: 
"Standards are arranged to meet the requirements of farm 
animals under normal conditions. The student should not accept 
the statements in the standards as absolute, but rather as data of 
a helpful nature, to be varied in practice as circumstances suggest. 

"The statements in the column headed "Dry Matter" should 
be regarded as approximate only, since the digestive tract of the 
animal readily adapts itself to variations of 10 per cent, or more 
from the standard of volume. 

"The standards are for animals of normal size. Those of 
small breeds will require somewhat more nutrients, amounting in 
some cases to 0.3 of a pound of nitrogenous and 1.5 pounds of 
non-nitrogenous digestible nutrients daily for 1,000 pounds of live 
weight of animals. 

"Narrowing the nutritive ratio in feeding full grown animals 
is for the purpose of lessening the depression of digestibility, to 
enliven the temperament, or to increase the production of milk 
at the expense of laying on fat. 

"The different standards given for the same class of animals 
according to performance illustrate the manner and direction in 
which desirable changes should be made. 

"In considering- the fattening standards the student should 
bear in mind that the most rapid fattening is usually the most 



FEEDING STANDARDS 137 

economical, so that the standard given may often be profitably 
increased. 

"Standards for milch cows are given for the middle of the 
lactation period with animals yielding milk of average com- 
position. 

"The standards for growing animals contemplate only a moderate 
amount of exercise; if much is taken, add 15 per cent., — (mostly 
non-nitrogenous nutrients) — to the ration. If no exercise is taken, 
deduct 15 per cent, from the standard." 

Explanation of Table II. — The table on feeding standards is 
divided into two parts, A and B. Table A gives the amounts 
of dry matter and digestible nutrients required per day for 
farm animals under all conditions of work and rest. This table 
is based on 1,000 lbs. live weight. Table B is similar to Table 
A, except that the standards are based on the weights of the 
animals as mentioned. To make this clearer, the first standard 
in Table A is for "oxen at rest in stall." The standard reads 
17.5 lbs. dry matter, 0.7 lbs protein, 8.3 lbs. carbohydrates and 
fat, 9.0 lbs. total, with a nutritive ratio of 1 : 11.9. This stand- 
ard is for oxen, weighing 1,000 lbs., at rest in the stall. The 
first standard in table B is for growing cattle 2-3 months old 
weighing 150 lbs. The standard reads 3.3 lbs. dry matter, 0.6 
lbs. protein, 2.8 lbs. carbohydrates and fat, 3.4 lbs. total, with 
a nutritive ratio of 1 : 4.6. This standard is figured on growing 
cattle weighing 150 lbs. 

The digestible carbohydrates, fiber and fat are included in the 
column, carbohydrates and fat. The fat is reduced to terms of 
carbohydrates and the digestible fiber is added to the carbohy- 
drates because it is considered of equal value. 

A study of the table reveals a difference in the standards for 
the same class of animal according to the purpose for which the 
animal is fed. These standards therefore may be called feed 
requirements. The feed requirements may be considered for 
maintenance, growth, work, milk production and fattening. 

Maintenance Requirements. — We learned that no matter how 
still an animal might be, a supply of food is necessary to keep the 
animal alive. The amount of dry matter and digestible nutrients 



1^8 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 



TABLE II.— Feeding Standards 



A — Per day and 1,000 pounds live weight. 1 



— T3 



O S O 



+5 G 

O 3 
H O 



Oxen at rest in stall 17.5 

Wool sheep, coarser breeds 20.0 

Wool sheep, finer breeds 22.5 

Oxen, moderately worked 24.0 

Oxen, heavily worked 26.0 

Horses, lightly worked | 20.0 

Horses, moderately worked 21.0 

23.0 
24.0 

24.5 
27.0 
26.0 
25.0 
26.0 
25.0 
36.0 
31.0 

2 3-5 
25.0 
22.0 



Horses, heavily worked. 

Milk cows, Wolff's standard 2 

Milk cows, Wisconsin standard 2 

Fattening oxen, preliminary period. . 

Fattening oxen, main period 

Fattening oxen, finishing period 
Fattening sheep, preliminary period. 

Fattening sheep, main period 

Fattening swine, preliminary period • 

Fattening swine, main period 

Fattening swine, finishing period 

Breeding ewes with lambs 

Brood sows 



Age 

Months 

Growing Cattee 



3- 6 

6-12 

12-18 

18-24 

Growing Sheep : 

5- 6 

6- 8 
8-11 

11-15 
15-20 
Growing Fat Pigs 

2- 3 

3- 5 

5- 6 

6- 8 
8-12 



Average live weig 
per head 



150 lbs. 
300 lbs. 
500 lbs- 
700 lbs. 
850 lbs. 



56 lbs. 
67 lbs. 
75 lbs. 
82 lbs. 
85 lbs. 

50 lbs. 
100 lbs. 
125 lbs. 
170 lbs. 
250 lbs. 



22.0 

23-4 
24.0 
24.0 
24.0 

28.0 
25.0 
23.0 
22.5 
22.0 

42.0 
34-o 
3i-5 
27.0 
21.0 



0.7 

1.2 

i-5 
1.6 

2.4 
i-5 
T -7 

2-3 

2-5 

2.2 

2-5 

3-o 
2.7 
3-o 
3-5 
5-o 
4.0 
2.7 
2.9 
2-5 



4.0 

3-2 

2.5 

2.0 
1.6 

3-2 

2.7 

2.1 
1.7 
1.4 

7-5 

5-o 

4-3 
3-4 
2.5 



8-3 
10.8 
12.0 
12.0 

14-3 
10.4 
11. 8 
14-3 
13-4 
14.9 
16. 1 
16.4 
16.2 
16.3 
15.8 
27-5 
24.0 

17-5 
16.2 
16.4 



18.3 
15.8 
14.9 

13-9 

12.7 

17.4 
14.7 
12.5 
11. 8 
11. 1 

30.0 
25.0 

23-7 
20.4 
16.2 



9.0 
12.0 

13-5 
13.0 
16.7 
11.9 

13-5 
16.6 

15.9 
17.1 
1S.6 
19.4 
18.9 
19-3 
19-3 
32-5 
28.0 
20.2 
19. 1 
18.9 



22.3 
19.0 

17.4 
15.9 

14-3 

20.6 
17.4 
14.6 

13-5 
12.5 

37-5 
30.6 
28.0 
23.8 
18.7 



1:11.9 

1: 9.0 

1: 8.0 

1: 7-5 

1: 6.0 

1: 6.9 

1: 6.9 

1: 6.2 

1: 5-4 



1: 6.8 

1: 6.4 

1: 5-5 

1: 6.0 

1: 5-4 

1: 4-5 

1: 5-5 

1: 6.0 

1: 6.5 

1: 5-6 

1: 6.6 



4.6 

4-9 
6.0 
7.0 
8.0 

5-4 
5-4 
6.0 
7.0 
S.o 

4.0 

5.o 

5-5 
6.0 

6.5 



5 The fattening rations are calculated for 1,000 pounds live weight at the beginning of 
the fattening. 

2 For standards for milk cows see Section XXVII. 



FEEDING STANDARDS 



139 



B — Per day and per head. 



Growing Cattle 




2- 3 


150 lbs 


3-6 


300 lbs 


6-12 


500 lbs 


12-18 


700 lbs 


18-24 


850 lbs 


Growing Sheep : 




5- 6 


56 lbs 


6- 8 


67 lbs 


8-1 1 


75 lbs 


11-15 


82 lbs 


15-20 


85 lbs 


Growing Fat Swine : 


2 - 3 


50 lbs 


3- 5 


100 lbs 


5- 6 


125 lbs 


6- 8 


170 lbs 


8-12 


250 lbs 



3-3 


0.6 


2.8 


3-4 


7.0 


1.0 


4-9 


5-9 


12.0 


i-3 


7-5 


8.8 


16.8 


1.4 


9-7 


11. 1 


20.4 


1.4 


11. 1 


'2.5 


1.6 


0.18 


0.974 


1. 154 


i-7 


0.18 


0.981 


1. 161 


1.7 


0.16 


o-953 


1. 113 


1.8 


0.14 


o.975 


1. 115 


r-9 


0.12 


o.955 


1-075 


2.1 


0.38 


1.50 


1.88 


3-4 


0.50 


2.50 


3.00 


3-9 


o.54 


2.96 


3-5o 


4.6 


0.58 


3-47 


4-05 


5-2 


0.62 


4-05 


4.67 



1: 4.6 

1: 4.9 

1: 6.0 

1: 7.0 

1: 8.0 

r: 5-4 

1: 5-4 

1 : 6.0 

1: 7.0 

1: 8.0 

1: 4.0 

1: 5-o 

1: 5-5 

1: 6.0 

1: 6.5 



required to keep the animal alive, which is producing and' do- 
ing nothing, without a loss or gain in weight, is called the main- 
tenance requirement. It is then the amount of nutrients re- 
quired to maintain the animal body. The feeding standard for 
"oxen at rest in stall" is an example of a maintenance require- 
ment. 

Growth Requirements. — In the composition of farm animals 
we found that the young animal contains a larger percentage of 
water than the mature animal, and a gain in weight of the young 
animal shows less dry matter and more water than with the 
mature animal. We also learned that the dry matter of the 
young animal contains more protein and less fat than that of the 
mature animal. Hence the requirements for growth show a 
larger proportion of protein to carbohydrates than for the older 
animals. The following standards per 1,000 lbs. live weight, 
illustrate this point. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Cattle, 3-6 months old 

Oxen, moderately worked. 



23.4 
24.0 



3-2 
1.6 



15.8 
12.0 



1:4.9 
i:7-5 



140 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Work Requirements. — A working animal requires protein to 
repair the broken down tissues and carbohydrates and fats to 
produce energy. Therefore the harder an animal has to work 
the more protein and carbohydrates are needed. The protein 




Fig. ii. — Saddle horse; a moderately worked animal — after Good. 

is usually increased in greater proportion than the carbohydrates. 
The standards for horses illustrate this : 



Horses, lightly worked 
Horses, moderately worked 
Horses, heavily worked 



Dry matter 
pounds 



20 
21 
23 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



i-5 

2-3 



Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



10.4 

1 1.8 

M-3 



Nutritive 
ratio 



1:6.9 
i :6.9 
1:6.2 



Milk Production Requirements. — The protein requirements for 
milk production are not entirely satisfactory for all parts of this 
country, and this will be discussed later. Suffice it to say that 
milk contains nitrogenous compounds, and enough protein must 



FEEDING STANDARDS 141 

be supplied to produce a good flow of milk and perform the nec- 
essary functions of the animal body. 

Fattening Requirements. — In the production of fat, carbohy- 
drates and fat of feed stuffs are mainly used. Hence the ra- 
tion for fattening animals should contain a considerable propor- 
tion of non-nitrogenous substances. Too much of an excess of 
carbohydrates and fats is undesirable as such excess interferes 
with digestion. A small proportion of the ration should con- 
sist of digestible protein which aids in the digestion and con- 
sumption of fattening rations. Kellner recommends 1 pound of 
digestible protein to 8-10 pounds of carbohydrates and fat. 



SECTION XXIII. 



HOW TO BALANCE A RATION AND TERMS OF A NUTRITIVE 

RATIO. 1 

Trial Ration. — Referring to Table i (Composition and Digesti- 
ble Nutrients) and Table II (Feeding Standards) and knowing 
the meaning of the terms as set forth in the preceding pages, 
it will now be a simple matter of arithmetic and judgment 
to compute or balance any ration. 

Let us suppose, for example, that we have a horse or a mule 
at home ploughing. Ploughing all day is hard or heavy work. 
Now if we turn to Table II we find that the standard for a 
horse weighing 1,000 lbs. heavily worked is as follows: 



Dry matter 
pounds 


Digestible 
protein 
pounds 


^stible Nutritive 
carbohydrates ratio 
pounds 


23 


2 -3 


14-3 


1:6.2 



This means that if our horse at home doing heavy work, 
weighs 1,000 lbs., the requirement will be 23 lbs. of dry matter, 
2.3 lbs. of digestible protein, and 14.3 lbs. of digestible carbo- 
hydrates to satisfy its needs for a day of 24 hours. 

Let us suppose we have the following feed stuffs at home: 
Cotton-seed meal, corn (shelled), wheat bran and timothy hay. 
To figure our ration let us try 2 lbs. of cotton-seed meal, 6 lbs. of 
shelled corn, 6 lbs. of wheat bran and 10 lbs. of timothy hay. 
We must now find the total dry matter, digestible protein, diges- 
tible carbohydrates and fat, in each of the above feeds that make 
up our ration. Referring to Table I we find that 100 lbs. of 
cotton-seed meal contain 91.8 lbs. of dry matter, 37.2 lbs. of 
digestible protein, 16.9 lbs. of digestible carbohydrates and 12.2 
lbs. of digestible fat. Then as 2 lbs. of cotton-seed meal are 
included in our trial ration we get the amounts of digestible 
nutrients as stated. 

1 Adapted from Halligan's Fundamentals of Agriculture. 



HOW TO BALANCE A RATION 



143 



2 lbs. X 0.918 

2 lbs. X 0.372 

2 lbs. X 0.169 

2 lbs. X 0.122 



1.836 lbs. of dry matter. 
0.744 lbs. of digestible protein. 
0.338 lbs. of digestible carbohydrates. 
0.244 lbs. of digestible fats. 



In the same way we arrive at the digestible amounts contained 
in 6 lbs. of shelled corn, 6 lbs. of wheat bran and 10 lbs. of 
timothy hay. Then we add together the dry matter and digesti- 
ble nutrients in the cotton-seed meal, shelled corn, wheat bran 
and timothy hay and compare the result with the standard. 



2 lbs. cotton-seed meal 

6 lbs. shelled corn 

6 lbs. wheat bran 

10 lbs. timothy hay 

24 lbs. total 



Dry matter 
pounds 



I.836 

5-364 
5-286 
8.680 

21.166 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



O.744 
O.468 
O.726 
O.280 

2.218 



Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



0-338 
4.008 

2.352 

4-340 

II.038 



Digestible 

fat 

pounds 



O.244 
O.258 
O.162 
O.140 

O.804 



To reduce the fat to terms of carbohydrates we must multiply 
by 2.25. 0.804 X 2.25 = 1.809. 11-038 -f- 1.809 — i 2 -847 ^s. 
total digestible carbohydrates. 12.847 (total digestible carbo- 
hydrates) -r- 2.218 (digestible protein) = 5.8. That is, the 
nutritive ratio is 1: 5.8. This trial ration is stated as follows: 



»ilSF 



Ratio a. • • 
Standard ■ 



21.166 
23- 



2.21! 
2-3 



Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



12.847 
14-3 



Nutritive 
ratio 



i:5.8 
i:6.2 



Balancing the Ration. — This trial ration is not entirely satis- 
factory. It is almost correct for dry matter and near enough 
to the standard in protein. It is too low in carbohydrates. We 
must correct the ration to make it more nearly approximate the 
standard. Let us add 3 lbs. of timothy hay and see what effect 
it has on balancing the ration. 



144 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



Digestible 
fat 

pounds 



2 lbs. cotton-seed meal 

6 lbs. shelled corn 

6 lbs. wheat bran 

13 lbs. timothy hay 



27 lbs. total 



1.836 

5-364 

5.286 

11.284 

23.770 



0.744 
0.468 
0.726 
0.364 

2.302 



o.333 
4.008 
2-352 
5.642 

12.340 



0.244 
0.258 
0.162 
0.182 

0.846 



The ration as it now stands. 



|Dry matter 
pounds 



Ration I 23.77 

Standard 23. 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



2.302 
2.3 



Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



14.244 

14-3 



Nutritive 
ratio 



i:6.2 
1:6.2 



It is practically impossible to get the exact amounts as laid 
down in the standard. The above ration is perhaps nearer the 
standard than one will ordinarily approximate. 

Rations for Animals Weighing- More or Less Than 1,000 Lbs. — 

If animals weigh more or less than 1,000 lbs. it is necessary 
to increase or decrease the amounts of the feed proportionately. 
The nutritive ratio, however, should remain the same. In the 
above example suppose the horse weighs 1,200 lbs., then we would 
increase the amounts of feed one-fifth. That is, instead of feed- 
ing 2 lbs. of cotton-seed meal, 6 lbs. of shelled corn, 6 lbs. of 
wheat bran and 13 lbs. of timothy hay we would feed 2.4 lbs. 
of cotton-seed meal, 7.2 lbs. shelled corn, 7.2 lbs. of wheat bran 
and 15.6 lbs. of timothy hay. If the animal weighed less than 
1,000 lbs. the ration should be proportionately reduced. Some- 
times the individuality of the animal must be considered. Dairy 
cattle weighing 700 lbs. giving 25 lbs. of milk need more feed 
than dairy cattle weighing the same but only giving 15 lbs. of 
milk. 

Terms of Nutritive Ratio. — Narrow, wide and medium are the 
terms applied to nutritive ratios. 



HOW TO BALANCE A RATION 



145 



Narrow Ration. — A narrow ration is one in which the pro- 
portion of protein is large as compared to the carbohydrates. A 
ration having a nutritive ratio less than 1 : 5.5 is considered 
narrow. 

A narrow ration. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



Digestible 

fat 

pounds 



3 lbs. cotton-seed meal . . 

10 lbs. wheat bran 

15 lbs. crimson clover hay 



2-754 

8.810 

i3-56o 



1. 116 
1. 210 

1-575 



0.507 
3.920 
5-235 



0.366 
c.270 
0.180 



28 lbs. total 25.124 3-9QI 9.662 0.816 



Nutritive ratio 1:2.9 

The protein in the above ration is high as compared to the 
carbohydrates. Nitrogenous ration is another name sometimes 
applied to a narrow ration because of the predominance of 
nitrogenous substances (protein). 

Wide Ration. — A wide nutritive ratio is one where the pro- 
portion of carbohydrates is large as compared to the protein. 
Such a ration has a nutritive ratio of more than 1 : 8.0 

A wide ration. 



|Dry matter 
pounds 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



Digestible 

fat 

pounds 



5 lbs. oats 4-45o 

10 lbs. corn and cob meal 8.490 

15 lbs. timothy hay 13.020 



30 lbs. total 25.960 



0.465 
0.440 
0.420 

I-325 



2.380 
6.000 
6.510 

14.890 



O.I75 
0.290 
0.210 

0.675 



Nutritive ratio 1:12.4 

This style of ration is sometimes called carbonaceous on ac- 
count of the high proportion of carbohydrates, but the term 
is incorrect because protein as well as carbohydrates contains 
carbonaceous compounds. 



146 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Medium Ration. — A ration with a nutritive ratio between 1 15.5 
and 1 : 8.0 is called a medium ration. 
A medium ration. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



3 lbs. dried brewers' giains 

6 lbs. wheat middlings 

15 lbs. corn stover 

5 lbs. alfalfa hay • ••••... 



2-754 

5-274 

11.580 

4.580 



29 lbs. total I 24. 188 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



O.471 
O.768 
O.420 
0.530 

2.189 



Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



I.089 
3.180 
6-345 
1-945 

12.559 



Digestible 

fat 

pounds 



O.I53 
O.204 
O.I05 
O.045 

O.057 



Nutritive ratio 1 :6. 



SECTION XXIV. 



AMOUNTS OF ROUGHAGE AND CONCENTRATES TO FEED. 

Amounts of Roughage and Cencentrates to Feed. — In compound- 
ing rations for live stock it is necessary that the proper amounts 
of roughage and concentrates accompany each other. It is prac- 
tically impossible to state just the amounts of roughage and 
grain to furnish animals for different purposes, as available feeds 
and prices influence the make up of the ration. The following 
considerations therefore are only approximate. 

Milch Cows. — In rations for milch cows we should aim to sup- 
ply 12-14 lbs. of dry matter from roughage and the balance 
with 8-12 lbs. of grain. Sometimes as high as 50 lbs. of silage 
are fed to milch cows but usually 30 to 40 lbs. are sufficient. 

Fattening Cattle do well on 2 lbs. of grain to 1 lb. of roughage. 
8 to 10 lbs. of roughage and 15 to 18 lbs. of grain per 1,000 
lbs. live weight are perhaps sufficient for this class of animal. 

Horses or Mules. — For horses or mules 10 to 12 lbs. of hay 
are usually enough. 1 lb. of roughage to 100 lbs. live weight is 
a crude method of estimating the quantity of roughage for a 
horse or mule. A horse or mule weighing 1,200 lbs. would 
therefore receive, according to this method, 12 lbs. of hay. 

When the concentrates of a ration are carbohydrate in char- 
acter, the roughage should be nitrogenous (legumes for example) 
and should the concentrates be nitrogenous the roughage should 
be relatively high in carbohydrates (grass hay for example). 
In other words the roughage and concentrates should be com- 
plements of each other. 

1. A few illustrations perhaps will make these points clearer. 
The standard for a horse weighing 1,000 lbs., doing hard work, 
is according: to Table II : 



Dry matter 
pounds 


Digestible protein 
pounds 


Digestible 

carbohydrates 

pounds 


Nutritive ratio 


23 


2-3 


14-3 


1:6.2 



148 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



A ration to meet the protein standard using red top hay alone 
would take 48 lbs. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



Digestible 

carbohydrates 

pounds 



48 lbs. red top hay 
Standard 



43-728 
23- 



2.304 

2-3 



23-592 
143 



There is an excess of 20.7 lbs. of dry matter and a waste of 
9.29 lbs. of carbohydrates in such a ration. A horse could not 
perform hard work with this ration as it would be impossible for 
this class of animal to consume such a large quantity of hay. 

2. Using 15 lbs. of corn (grain), it will take 40 lbs. of tim- 
othy hay to approximate the protein requirement. 



15 lbs. corn 

40 lbs. timothy hay. 



55 lbs. total. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



13.410 

34.720 

43.I30 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



1. 1 70 
1. 120 

2.290 



Digestible 

carbohydrates 

pounds 



II. 471 
18 620 

30.091 



This combination is unsatisfactory because it exceeds the dry 
matter standard by 25 lbs. and there is a waste of 15.7 lbs. of 
carbohydrates. Both of these feeds are proportionately high 
in carbohydrates. 

3. Substituting alfalfa hay (which is nitrogenous) for the 
timothy it will take 10 lbs. of the former to satisfy the protein 
standard with 15 lbs. of corn. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



Digestible 

carbohydrates 

pounds 



15 lbs. corn 

10 lbs. alfalfa hay 



Ration • • • 
Standard. 



13.410 
9. 160 

22.570 



1. 170 
1.060 

2.230 

2.3 



11. 471 

4-093 

I5-564 
'4-3 



This combination practically balances the ration although the 
carbohydrates are slightly in excess. In this ration the corn 



roughage; and concentrates to feed 



149 



is proportionately high in carbohydrates and the alfalfa is rela- 
tively high in protein. These feeds are then complements of 
each other. This ration should prove satisfactory as the total 
feed is not too large in amount and the roughage is within the 
limit of the requirements for a horse. 

4. Using oats alone would require 25 lbs. to approximate the 
standard. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



Digestible 

carbohydrates 

pounds 



25 lbs. oats 
Standard • • 



22.25 
23- 



2.325 
2-3 



13.869 
14-3 



A ration of oats alone is not suitable because of the excess 
of concentrate. Roughage is required for the best results. Such 
a ration would prove too expensive for the economical feeder. 

5. If we reduce the amount of oats to 15 lbs. and add enough 
red top hay to meet the protein requirement, 18 lbs. will be 
needed. 



15 lbs. oats 

18 lbs. red top hay 



33 lbs. total 



Dry matter 
pounds 



13- 

16. 



150 
; 9 8 



29.748 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



1-395 
0.864 

2.259 



Digestible 

carbohydrates 

pounds 



8.321 
8.847 

17.168 



This ration contains 6.7 lbs. too much of dry matter and 2.8 
lbs. excess of carbohydrates. 

6. It is evident that a nitrogenous roughage must be added 
and the amount of red top hay reduced. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 




Digestible 

carbohydrates 

pounds 



15 lbs. oats J 13.350 

7 lbs., red top hay ' 6.377 

6 lbs. alfalfa hay , 5.496 

Ration 25.223 

Standard i 23. 



8.321 

3-441 
2.456 

14.218 
14-3 



150 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

The ration as it now stands is properly balanced. It is not 
enough too high in dry matter to affect its usefulness and the 
protein and carbohydrates are sufficiently close. 

7. Generally a variation from the standard shows a predomi- 
nance of carbohydrates and dry matter but sometimes an excess 
of protein is employed. The following ration illustrates a pre- 
dominance of protein : 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



Digestible 

carbohydrates 

pounds 



12 lbs. oats 

2 lbs. cotton-seed meal 
15 lbs. alsike clover hay 

Ration 

Standard 



10.680 
11.S36 

13-545 

26.061 



1. 116 

0.744 
1.260 



3.120 



6.657 
0.S87 
6.881 

I4-425 
14-3 



This ration shows a waste of 0.8 of a pound of protein which 
is generally the most expensive nutrient in feed stuffs. The 
roughage in this ration is also a little high. The carbohydrates 
agree with the standard. 

Feeding Standards are Guides. — It must be understood that the 
feeding standards are only guides and the intelligent feeder will 
often find it necessary to change the standard to suit his con- 
ditions. In other words the feeder must use the feeding stand- 
ards to approximate the requirements of his live-stock from the 
feeds that are available and cheapest. 

The following table is given to enable the feeder to compound 
rations easily. In making rations for animals, large amounts of 
the grain portion can be mixed at one time. This saves the trou- 
ble of mixing and calculating at every feeding. The measure 
of roots, molasses, hay, fodder and ensilage can be determined 
once and fed accordingly without any inconvenience. 

Suggestion : — Compute a ration for a moderately worked horse 
weighing 1,000 lbs. from cotton-seed meal, wheat bran and 
molasses (cane). Criticize this ration. 

How much hay are the horses or mules receiving per day 
in your community? Is this too much? Are not some feeders 



ROUGHAGE AND CONCENTRATES TO FEED 



151 



allowing their horses all the roughage they wish? Is this good 
practice ? 

Weight and Measure of Feed Stuffs 1 



One quart 
weighs 
pounds 


One pound 

measures 

quarts 


I.O 


I.O 


I.I 

1-5 
0.6 


0.9 
0.7 
1-7 


1.4 


0.7 


0.7 


1.4 


0.5 


2.0 


i-5 

i-7 


0.7 
0.6 


i-5 
0.26 


0.7 
3-8 


0.5-0.7 


1. 0-1.4 


1.4 
i-7 


0.7 
0.8 
0.6 


1.1 


0.9 


0.9 


1.1 


1.1 
0.6 


0.9 

i-7 


3-o 
0.7 


°-3 

1-4 


1.0 


1.0 


o.S 
1.2 
0.6 


i-3 
0.8 
1.8 


i-5 
i-7 


0.7 
0.6 


0.5 


2.0 


i-7 
1.2 
0.8 
0.6 


0.6 
08 
i-3 
i-7 


2.0 


o-5 



Alfalfa meal 

Barley meal 

Barley (whole) 

Brewers' dried grains 

Corn and cob meal 

Corn and oat feed 

Corn bran 

Corn meal 

Corn (whole) 

Cotton-seed meal 

Cotton-seed hulls 

Distillers' dried grains 

Germ oil meal 

Gluten feed .... 

Gluten meal 

Hominy meal 

Linseed meal (new process) 

Linseed meal (old process) 

Malt sprouts 

Molasses (cane, blackstrap) 

Oats (ground) 

Oats ( whole ) 

Rice bran 

Rice polish 

Rye bran 

Rye meal 

Rye (whole ) 

Wheat bran 

Wheat (ground ) 

Wheat middlings (flour) 

Wheat middlings (standard) 

Wheat mixed feed (bran and shorts 
Wheat (whole) 



1 The data on wheat mixed feed was taken from Bui. 112, Massachusetts Experiment 
Station ; the data on alfalfa meal, cottonseed hulls, molasses and rice products were 
worked out by the writer ; the remaining data came from Farmers' Bui. 222. 



SECTION XXV. 



HOW TO IMPROVE AND REDUCE THE COST OF RATIONS. 1 

A Common Ration. — A herd of milch cows is receiving the 
following ration per day of 24 hours, per 1,000 lbs. live weight; 
5 lbs. of cotton-seed meal, 3 lbs. of wheat bran, 10 lbs. of red 
clover hay (medium) and 15 lbs. of corn stover. Let us figure 
this ration and find out if it is properly balanced for the herd 
of dairy cows. Turn to Table I and find that the following 
amounts of digestible nutrients are present in 100 lbs. of each 
feed stuff. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Protein 
pounds 



Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



Fat 
pounds 



Cotton-seed meal 

Wheat bran 

Red clover hay • • 
Corn stover 



91-8 
88.1 
84.7 

77-2 



37-2 

12. 1 

6.8 

2.8 



16.9 

39- 2 

35-8 
42.3 



12.2 

2.7 

i-7 
0.7 



Then as 5 lbs. of cotton-seed meal are in the ration, we mul- 
tiply the amounts of dry matter, digestible protein, digestible 
carbohydrates and digestible fat as given above for cotton-seed 
meal, by 5. Or 

5 X 0.918 = 4.590 lbs. of dry matter in 5 lbs. of cotton-seed 
meal. 

5 X 0.372 = 1.860 lbs. of digestible protein in 5 lbs. of cotton- 
seed meal. 

5 X 0.169 = 0.845 lbs. of digestible carbohydrates in 5 lbs. 
of cotton-seed meal. 

5 X 0.122 = 0.610 lbs. of digestible fat in 5 lbs. of cotton- 
seed meal. 

In the same way we compute the digestible nutrients in the 
wheat bran, red clover hay and corn stover. 

1 Adapted from Halligan's Fundamentals of Agriculture. 



COST OF RATIONS 



153 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Protein 
pounds 



Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



Fat 
pounds 



5 lbs. cotton-seed meal 
3 lbs. wheat bran 
10 lbs. red clover hay- • 
15 lbs. corn stover 

33 lbs. total 



4-59Q 

2.643 

8.470 

11.580 

27.283 



1.860 

0.363 
0.680 
0.420 

3-323 



0.845 
1. 176 
3-58o 
6-345 

1 1 . 946 



0.610 
0.08 1 
0.170 
0.105 

0.966 



With the fat reduced to carbohydrates the ration reads : 




The ration is too high in dry matter, digestible protein and 
digestible carbohydrates. The ration is also too narrow. 

Improving the Ration. — Let us try to improve this ration by 
supplying less of the nutrients and particularly less protein. By 
consulting Table I we learn that cotton-seed meal has more di- 
gestible protein than any of the other feeds in this ration. Sup- 
pose then we reduce the amount of cotton-seed meal to 3 lbs. 
Then the ration will be as follows : 



3 lbs. cotton-seed meal 
3 lbs. wheat bran 

10 lbs. red clover hay. . 

15 lbs. corn stover 

31 lbs. total 

Improved ration 

Standard 



Dry matter 
pounds 



2-754 

2.643 

8.470 

11.580 

25-447 



25-447 
24. 



Protein 
pounds 



I. Il6 

O.363 
O.680 
O.420 

2-579 



2-579 
2-5 



Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



O.507 
1. 176 
3.58o 
6-345 

II.608 



13.232 

13-4 



Fat 
pounds 



O.366 
O.081 
O.170 
O.I05 

O.722 

Nutritive 
ratio 

1:5.1 

i:5.4 



The ration as it now stands approximates the standard. It is 
close enough to the standard for all practical purposes. 



154 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

How to Reduce the Cost of a Ration. — John Smith has a large 
farm and he is feeding his 15 horses which weigh 1,000 lbs., that 
are doing hard work, the following ration. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



Digestible 

fat 

pounds 



8 lbs. oats 

4 lbs. shelled corn 

6 lbs. wheat bran - 

10 lbs. timothy hay 

2S lbs. total 

Ration 

Standard 



7.120 
3-576 
5-236 
8.680 

24.662 



24.662 
23- 



0.736 
0.312 
0.726 
0.280 

2.054 



2.054 

2-3 



3-784 

2.672 

2.352 

4- 34o 
13.148 



14.9705 
M-3 



o-33 6 
0.172 
0.162 
0.140 

0.810 



Nutritive 
ratio 

17-3 
i:6.2 



Cost of the Ration. — Let us learn what it is costing John Smith 
to feed his horses. The following are the market prices of some 
of the feeds which are available to John Smith. 

Per ton of 2,000 
pounds 

Oats - 135-QO 

Shelled corn 28.00 

Wheat bran 25.00 

Timothy hay 18.00 

Crab grass hay 15.00 

Cotton-seed meal 26.00 

Corn and cob meal 22.00 



Oats cost $35 per ton of 2,000 lbs. One pound of oats costs 
$0.0175. Then 8 lbs. will cost 8 X 0.0175 = $0.14. In a simi- 
lar way the cost of the shelled corn, wheat bran and timothy 
hay are calculated. 

Cost 

8 lbs. oats $ o. 14 

4 lbs. shelled corn 0.056 

6 lbs. wheat bran 0.075 

10 lbs. timothy hay 0.090 

Total cost per day's ration = $ 0.361 



COST OF RATIONS 



155 



It is costing John Smith $0,361 per day per horse. Or it is 
costing him 15 X $0,361 = $5,415 for his 15 horses per day. 
We will now substitute some other feeds and see if we cannot 
reduce John Smith's feed bill. 

A Cheaper Ration. — Oats, shelled corn and timothy hay are the 
expensive feeds in this ration, considering the nutrients they 
furnish. By perusing Table I we find that cotton-seed meal 
contains a high per cent, of digestible protein. We can substi- 
tute this feed for oats. Shelled corn and corn and cob meal 
contain about the same amounts of dry matter and digestible 
carbohydrates, so we may substitute corn and cob meal for 
shelled corn. The shelled corn is richer in digestible protein 
than the corn and cob meal but we can get this nutrient cheaper 
from our wheat bran. The crab grass hay is of about the same 
nutritive value as timothy hay. It is also cheaper so we will 
use crab grass hay in place of timothy hay. A balanced ration 
from these feeds would be as stated. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



Digestible 

fat 

pounds 



2 lbs. cotton-seed meal • • 

7 lbs. corn and cob meal 

8 lbs. wheat bran 

12 lbs. crab grass hay 

29 lbs. total 

Ration 

Standard 



1.836 

5-943 

7.048 

10.764 

25-59r 



25-591 
23- 



0.744 
0.308 
0.968 
0.264 

2.284 



2.284 

2-3 



0.338 

4.200 

3-136 
5-136 

12.810 



14.464 

14-3 



0.244 
0.203 
0.216 
0.072 

o.735 

Nuttitive 
ratio 

1:6.3 

i :6.2 



Compared to the Standard. — This ration is better than the one 
John Smith is feeding. It comes nearer the standard. The dry 
matter and carbohydrates in John Smith's ration approximate the 
standard but the protein is too low and his ration is too wide. 
The dry matter in this second ration is a little high, but animals 
can take care of an excess of dry matter within certain limits 
as previously explained. The protein and carbohydrates in the 



T56 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

balanced ration are very close to the standard. The nutritive 
ratio very closely approximates the standard nutritive ratio. 
The Saving 1 . — At the market prices the new ration will cost, 

2 lbs. cotton-seed meal #0.026 

7 lbs. corn and cob meal • 0.077 

8 lbs. wheat bran ■ o.ioo 

12 lbs. crab grass hay • 0.090 

Total cost per ration $0,293 

In other words this ration will cost John Smith $0,293 per 
day per horse. The ration of John Smith's costs $0,361 per 
day per horse. This new ration will save John Smith $0,361 
— $0,293 = $0,068 per day per horse. On 15 horses the sav- 
ing will be 15 X $0,068 = $1.02 per day. In a year the saving- 
will amount to 365 X $1.02 = $372.30. This example just cited 
is not exceptional. There are many farmers, livery men and 
other feeders who throw away money every year because of a 
poor selection of feeds and still they do not always get the best 
returns. This second ration, as it more closely approximates 
the standard, is indeed a better one, besides being cheaper than 
John Smith's ration. 

Suggestion: — Select a few rations fed in the county and have 
the students ascertain the market values of the feeds and re- 
duce the cost and improve these rations as much as possible. 



SECTION XXVI. 



TABLE OF AMOUNTS OF DRY MATTER AND DIGESTIBLE 
NUTRIENTS IN FEED STUFFS 



Table III which follows, is given to save the student consid- 
erable work in figuring rations. It gives the dry matter and 
the digestible nutrients in i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, and 10 pounds of 
several feed stuffs commonly used. 

In Table I the composition and digestible nutrients of feed 
stuffs are given but in figuring rations from Table I a great 
deal of work is necessary. The figures in Table I are based on 
100 lbs. of material so in obtaining data for any amount less 
than 100 lbs. involves a chance for error. 

Use of Table III. — Let us suppose we wish to feed a ration 
composed of 5 lbs. of oats, 10 lbs. of alfalfa hay and 4 lbs. of 
corn (grain) per day. By referring to Table III we find that 
these quantities of the stated feeds carry the following amounts 
of dry matter and digestible nutrients. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



Digestible 

fat 

pounds 



5 lbs. oats 

4 lbs. corn 

10 lbs. alfalfa hay 

Total 

Ration 



4-450 
3-576 
9.160 



0.465 
0.312 
1.060 



2.380 
2.672 
3.890 



O.I75 
0.172 
0.090 



17.186 
17.186 



1.337 
1.337 



8.942 
9.9 2 5 



o.437 



The digestible fat as given in the table must be reduced to 
carbohydrates to get the total carbohydrates. It is only neces- 
sary to do this once, however, after the amounts for the ration 
have been added, as was done above. 

If amounts other than those given in the table are desired it 
is only necessary to multiply, divide or add some of those given. 
For example, if the amounts of dry matter and digestible nu- 
trients for 6 lbs. are wished we would multiply the amounts 
given for 3 lbs., by 2. If 9 lbs. are wanted, add the amounts 



I58 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



TABLE III.— Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in 
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 Pounds of Feed Stuffs. 



Feed 


Weight 
pounds 


Dry matter 
pounds 


Protein 
pounds 


Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 


Fat 
pounds 




I 


O.89I 


O.087 


O.656 


O.Ol6 








2 


I.782 


O.174 


1. 312 


O.O32 




3 


2.673 


0.261 


I.968 


O.04S 




4 


3-564 


O.348 


2.624 


O.064 




5 


4-455 


0-435 


3.280 


O.080 




7 


6.237 


O 609 


4-592 


O.II2 




10 


8.910 


O.870 


6.560 


O.160 




1 


0.920 


O.061 


O.687 










2 


1.840 


O.I22 


1-374 






3 


2.760 


O.183 


2.061 






4 


3.680 


O.244 


2.748 






5 


4 600 


0.305 


3-435 






7 


6.440 


O.427 


4.809 






10 


9.200 


O.610 


6.870 




Brewers' grains ( dried ) 


1 


0.918 


O.I57 


0-363 


0.05I 




2 


1.836 


O.314 


0.726 


O.I02 




3 


2-754 


0.47I 


1.089 


O.I53 




4 


3.672 


O.628 


i-45 2 


0.204 




5 


4-59° 


O.785 


1. 815 


0.255 




7 


6.426 


I.099 


2-541 


0-357 




10 


9.180 


I-570 


3-630 


0.5IO 




1 


0.874 


O.077 


0.492 










2 


1.748 


O.154 


0.984 


O.O36 




3 


2.622 


O.231 


1.476 


O.O54 




4 


3-496 


O.308 


1.968 


O.O72 




5 


4-370 


0.385 


2.460 


O.O9O 




7 


6.118 


0.539 


3-444 


O.I26 




10 


8.740 


O.770 


4.920 


O.lSo 




1 


0.894 


O.078 


0.668 


O.043 






2 


1.788 


O.I56 


I-336 


O.086 




3 


2.682 


O.234 


2.004 


O.I29 




4 


3-576 


O.312 


2.672 


O.I72 




5 


4.470 


O.39O 


3 -34o 


0.2I5 




7 


6.258 


0.546 


4.676 


0.30I 




10 


8.940 


O.780 


6.680 


0.430 




1 


0.850 


O.055 


0.645 


0.035 




2 


1.700 


O.I 10 


1.290 


O.070 




3 


2.550 


0.165 


1-935 


O.I05 




4 


3.400 


0.220 


2.580 


O.I40 




5 


4.250 


0.275 


3-225 


O.I75 




7 


5-95o 


0.385 


4515 


0.245 




10 


8.500 


0.550 


6.450 


0.350 






0.849 
1.698 


0.044 


0.600 


O.O29 




2 


0.0S8 


1.200 


O.O58 




3 


2-547 


0.132 


1.800 


O.087 



TABLE OF AMOUNTS OF DRY MATTER 



159 



TABLE III. —Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in i, 2, 
3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 Pounds oe Feed Stuffs.— {Co ntinued) 



Feed 


Weight 
pounds 


Dry matter 
pounds 


Protein 
pounds 


Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 


Fat 
pounds 


Corn and cob meal (cont'd) • 


4 

5 

7 

10 


3-396 
4-245 
5-943 
8.490 


O.176 
0.220 
O.308 
O.440 


2.400 
3.000 
4.200 
6.000 


O. Il6 

O.I45 
O.203 
0.290 




1 
2 

3 
4 
5 
7 
10 


0.897 

1-794 
2.691 

3-588 

4-485 
6.279 
8.970 


O.I25 
O.250 

0-375 
O.500 
O.625 
O.875 
I.250 


O.300 
O.600 
O.900 
I.200 
I.500 
2.IOO 
3.000 


0.173 
0.346 

0.5I9 
0.692 
0.865 
1. 211 
I.73O 






1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
7 
10 


0.889 
1.778 
2.667 
3-556 

4-445 
6.223 
8.890 


0.003 
0.006 
0.009 
O.OI2 
O.OI5 
0.02I 
O.030 


0.33I 
O.662 

0.993 
I.324 

1-655 
2.317 
3-3IO 


O.OI7 
O.034 
O.05I 
O.068 
O.085 
O.II9 
O.170 






1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
7 
10 


0.918 
1.836 

2-754 
3.672 

4-59° 
6.426 
9.180 


O.372 
O.744 
I. Il6 
I.488 
I.860 
2.604 
3.720 


O.169 
0.338 
O.507 
O.676 
O.845 
1. 183 
I.69O 


O.I22 
O.244 
O.366 
O.488 
O.610 
O.854 
I.220 






1 
2 

3 
4 
5 
7 
10 


0.920 
1.840 
2.760 
3.680 
4.600 
6.440 
9.200 


O.231 
O.462 
O.693 

O.924 
1. 165 
I.627 
2.310 


0-394 
O.788 
1. 182 
1-576 
I.970 
2.758 
3 -94o 


0.1 15 

O.230 

0.345 
O.460 

0.575 
O.805 
1. 150 


Flour (dark feeding) 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
7 
10 


0.903 
1.806 
2.709 
3.612 

4-515 
6.321 
9.030 


O.I35 
O.270 
O.405 
0.540 
O.675 

0.945 
I -350 


0.513 
1.026 

1-539 
2.052 

2.565 
3-591 
5-i3o 


0.020 
O.O40 
O.060 
O.080 
O. IOO 
O.I4O 
0.200 




1 

2 
3 
4 
5 

7 


0.915 
1.830 

2-745 
3.660 

4-575 
6.405 


O.223 
O.446 
O.669 
O.892 

I.II5 

1. 561 


0.529 
1.058 

1.587 
2. 116 

2.645 
3-703 


0.026 
O.O52 
O.078 
0.I04 
O.I3O 
O.I82 





l6o ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



TABLE III.— Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in i, 2, 
3, 4, 5, 7 and ro Pounds of Feed Stuffs. — {Continued) 



Feed 


Weight 
pounds 


Dry matter 
pounds 


Protein 
pounds 


Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 


Fat 
pounds 


Gluten feed (continued) 


IO 


9-I50 


2.230 


5.290 


O.260 




I 


O.918 
I.836 


O.258 
O.516 


0-433 
O.866 


O. I IO 




2 


0.220 




3 


2-754 


O.774 


I.299 


0.330 




4 


3.672 


I.032 


I.732 


O.44O 




5 


4-590 


I.290 


2.165 


0.550 




7 


6.426 


I.806 


3-03I 


O.770 




10 


9.180 


2.580 


4.330 


I. no 




1 


O.889 
1.778 


O.075 
O.I50 


0.552 
1. 104 


0.068 




2 


0.136 




3 


2.667 


O.225 


I.656 


0.204 




4 


3-556 


O.30O 


2.208 


0.272 




5 


4-445 


0.375 


2.760 


0.340 




7 


6.223 


0.525 


3 .86d 


0.476 




10 


8.890 


O.750 


5-52o 


0.680 




1 


0.890 
1.780 


O.068 


0.598 
1. 196 


0.072 

0.144 




2 


O.136 




3 


2.670 


O.204 


1.794 


0.216 




4 


3-56o 


O.272 


2.392 


0.288 




5 


4.45o 


0.340 


2.990 


0.360 




' 7 


6.230 


O.476 


4.186 


0.504 




10 


8.900 


O.680 


5.980 


0.720 




1 


0.907 
1.814 


O.078 
O.I56 


0.571 


0.021 




2 


1. 142 


O.C42 




3 


2.721 


O.234 


I-/I3 


0.063 




4 


3.628 


O.312 


2.284 


0.084 




5 


4-535 


0.390 


2.855 


0.105 




7 


6-349 


O.546 


3-997 


0.147 




10 


9.070 


O.780 


5-7io 


0.210 


Linseed meal (old process) . 


1 


0.908 


O.293 


0.327 


0.070 




2 


1. 816 


O.586 


0.654 


0.140 




3 


2.724 


O.879 


0.981 


0.210 




4 


3-632 


1. 172 


1.308 


0.280 




5 


4-54Q 


I.465 


1-635 


0.350 




7 


6.356 


2.051 


2.289 


0.490 




10 


9.080 


2.930 


3.270 


0.700 


Linseed meal (new process) ■ 


I 


0.899 


O.282 


0.401 


0.028 




2 


1.798 


O.564 


0.802 


0.056 




3 


2.697 


O.846 


1.203 


0.084 




4 


3-596 


1. 128 


1.604 


O. 112 




5 


4-495 


1. 4IO 


2.005 


O.I4O 




7 


6.293 


1.974 


2.807 


O.I96 




10 


8.990 


2.820 


4.010 


O.280 




1 


0.898 


O. lS6 


0.371 


O.OI7 





TABLE OF AMOUNTS OF DRY MATTER 



161 



TABLE III.— Dry Matter and DiCxEstible Nutrients in i, 2, 
3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 Pounds of Feed Stuffs.— {Continued) 



Feed 


weight 


Dry matter 


Protein 


Carbohy- 


Fat 




pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


Malt sprouts (continued) • • . 


2 


I.796 


O.372 


O.742 


O.034 




3 


2.694 


0.558 


I.II3 


0.051 




4 


3-592 


0.744 


I.484 


0.068 




5 


4.490 


O.930 


1.855 


0.085 




7 


6.286 


I.302 


2-597 


0. 119 




10 


8.980 


I.860 


3-7IO 


O.170 




1 


0.792 




0-595 










2 


1.584 




1. 190 






3 


2.376 




1.785 






4 


3-i68 




2.380 






5 


3.960 




2-975 






7 


5-544 




4.165 






10 


7.920 




5 -950 




Molasses (cane, blackstrap). 


1 


0.776 




0.659 






2 


1-552 




1. 318 






3 


2.328 




1.977 






4 


3.104 




2.636 






5 


3.880 




3-295 






7 


5-432 




4-613 






10 


7.760 




6.590 




Oats 


1 


0.890 


O.093 


0.476 






0.035 




2 


1.780 


O.186 


0.952 


0.070 




3 


2.670 


O.279 


1.428 


O.I05 




4 


3-56o 


O.372 


1.904 


O.140 




5 


4-45o 


O.465 


2.380 


O.I75 




7 


6.230 


O.651 


3-332 


0-245 




10 


8.900 


O.930 


4.760 


0.350 




1 


0.893 


O.429 


0.228 


0.069 






2 


1.786 


O.858 


0.456 


0.138 




3 


2.679 


I.287 


0.684 


0.207 




4 


3-572 


1. 716 


0.912 


0.276 




5 


4-465 


2.145 


1. 140 


0-345 




7 


6.251 


3-003 


1-596 


O.483 




10 


8.930 


4.290 


2.280 


O.690 




1 


0.872 


O.048 


0.722 






0.003 




2 


1.744 


O.096 


1.444 


0.006 




3 


2.616 


O.144 


2.166 


0.009 




4 


3.488 


O.I92 


2.888 


O.OI2 




5 


4.360 


O.240 


3.610 


0.015 




7 


6.104 


0.336 


5-054 


O.021 




10 


8.720 


O.480 


7.220 


O.030 


Rice bran ( 15 per cent, hulls) 


1 


0.901 


O.064 


0.367 


0.054 




2 


1.802 


O.I28 


0-734 


0.108 







2.703 


O.192 


I.IOI 


0.162 




4 


3.604 


O.256 


1.468 


O.216 



1 62 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



TABLE III.— Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in i, 2, 
3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 Pounds <f Feed Stuffs.— {Continued) 



Feed 


Weight 
pounds 


Dry matter 
pounds 


Protein 
pounds 


Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 


Fat 
pounds 


Rice bran (15 percent, bulls) 












/ f i*-ni£»r1 "\ 


5 
7 


4-505 
6.307 


O.320 
O.44S 


'•835 
2.569 


O.270 




0.378 




10 


9.OIO 


O.640 


3.670 


O.540 


Rice meal (pure bran) 


1 
2 


O.914 
I.828 


O.086 
O.172 


O.400 
O.800 


O.059 
O.II8 




3 


2.742 


O.258 


I.200 


O.I77 




4 


3-656 


0.344 


I.600 


O.236 




5 


4-57° 


O.430 


2.000 


O.295 




7 


6.398 


O.602 


2.800 


O.413 




10 


9.140 


O 860 


4.000 


O.59O 


... 


1 
2 


O.885 
I.770 


O.073 
O.146 


O.604 
I.208 


O.043 




O.086 




3 


2.655 


O.219 


1. 812 


O.I29 




4 


3- 54o 


O.292 


2.416 


O.I72 




5 


4425 


O.365 


3.020 


O.215 




7 


6.195 


0.5H 


4.228 


O.30I 




10 


8.850 


O.730 


6.040 


0.430 


f , • \ 


1 


0.884 


O.099 


O.676 


O.OII 




2 


1.768 


O.198 


1-352 


0.022 




3 


2.652 


O.297 


2.028 


0.033 




4 


3-536 


0.396 


2.704 


0.044 




5 


4.420 


0.495 


3.38o 


0.055 




7 


6.188 


O.693 


4-732 


0.077 




10 


8.840 


O.990 


6.760 


0. no 




1 


0.895 


O.I02 


O.692 


0.017 




2 


1.790 


O.204 


1.384 


0.034 




3 


2.685 


O.306 


2.076 


0.051 




4 


3-58o 


O.408 


2.768 


0.06S 




5 


4-475 


O.510 


3.460 


0.085 




7 


6.265 


O.714 


4.844 


0.119 




10 


8.950 


I.020 


6.920 


0.170 




1 


0.881 


O. 12 1 


0.392 


0.027 




2 


1.762 


0.242 


O.784 


0.054 




3 


2.643 


0.363 


1. 1 76 


0.081 




4 


3-524 


O.484 


I.568 


0.108 




5 


4.405 


O.605 


I.960 


0.135 




7 


6.167 


O.847 


2.744 


0.189 




10 


8.8ro 


1. 2IO 


3.920 


0.270 




1 


0.879 


O.I28 


0-53° 


0.034 




2 


1-758 


O.256 


1.060 


0.068 




3 


2.637 


O.384 


1-59° 


0.102 




4 


3-5i6 


0.5I2 


2.120 


0.136 




5 


4-395 


O.640 


2.650 


0.170 




7 


6.153 


O.896 


3.710 


0.238 



TABLE OF AMOUNTS OF DRY MATTER 



163 



TABLE III.— Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in 1, 2, 
3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 Pounds of Feed Stuffs. — {Continued) 



Feed 


Weight 
pounds 


Dry matter 
pounds 


Protein 
pounds 


Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 


Fat 
pounds 


Wheat middlings (cont'd) . . 


IO 


8.790 


I.280 


5 -3°o 


O.340 


Corn fodder (whole plant) • • 


I 


O.678 


O.026 


0.375 


O.009 




2 


1-356 


O.052 


0.750 


O.OlS 




3 


2.034 


O.078 


1. 125 


O.027 




4 


2.712 


0. 104 


I-5CO 


O.036 




5 


3-390 


O.I30 


1.875 


O.045 




7 


4.746 


O.182 


2.625 


O.063 




10 


6.780 


O.260 


3-750 


O.090 




1 


O.91 I 


O.053 


0-433 


0.020 




2 


1.822 


O.I06 


O.866 


O.040 




3 


2-733 


O.I59 


I.299 


O.060 




4 


3-644 


0.2I2 


1-732 


O.080 




5 


4-555 


O.265 


2.165 


O.IOO 




7 


6-377 


O.371 


3.03I 


0.140 




10 


9. 1 10 


0.530 


4-330 


0.200 


Corn husks (shucks) 


1 


0.919 


O.OIO 


O.647 


0.003 




2 


1.838 


0.020 


I.294 


0.006 




3 


2-757 


O.030 


1. 941 


0.009 




4 


3.676 


O.040 


2.588 


O.OI2 




5 


4-595 


O.050 


3-235 


0.015 




7 


6-433 


O.070 


4-529 


0.021 




10 


9.190 


O.IOO 


6.470 


0.030 


Corn stover (whole plant ex- 


1 


0.772 


0.028 


0.423 


0.007 




2 


1-544 


0.056 


O.846 


0.014 






3 


2.316 


0.084 


I.269 


0.021 




4 


3.08S 


O.II2 


I.692 


0.028 




5 


3.860 


O.140 


2. 115 


0.035 




7 


5-404 


O.I96 


2.961 


0.049 




10 


7.720 


O.280 


4.23O 


0.070 




1 


0.207 


O.OO9 


O.I20 


0.003 




2 


0.414 


O.OlS 


O.24O 


0.006 




3 


0.621 


0.027 


O.360 


0.009 




4 


0.828 


O.O36 


O.4S0 


O.OI2 




5 


1-035 


O.045 


O.60O 


0.015 




7 


1.449 


O.063 


O.84O 


0.021 




10 


2.070 


O.O9O 


I.200 


0.030 




1 


0.206 


O.O06 


O.I22 


0.004 






2 


412 


O.OI2 


O.244 


0.008 




3 


0.618 


O.OlS 


O.366 


O.OI2 




4 


0.824 


0.024 


O.488 


0.016 




5 


1.030 


O.O3O 


O.OIO 


0.020 




7 


1.442 


O.042 


O.854 


0.028 




10 


2.060 

| 


O.060 


I.220 


0.040 




1 


0.210 


O.OI9 


O.I02 


0.004 





164 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



TABLE III. — Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in i, a, 
3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 Pounds of Feed Stuffs. — {Contimced) 



Feed 


Weight 


Dry matter 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
d rates 


Fat 




pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


Barley (green) (continued). 


2 


O.420 


O.038 


O.204 


0.008 




3 


O.630 


O.057 


O.306 


O.OI2 




4 


O.840 


0.076 


O.408 


O.OI6 




5 


I.050 


O.095 


O.510 


0.020 




7 


I.470 


O.I33 


O.714 


O.028 




10 


2.IOO 


O.190 


I.020 


O.040 




1 


O.378 


O.025 


O.188 


O.OIO 




2 


O.756 


O.050 


O.376 


0.020 




3 


I -134 


O.075 


O.564 


0.030 




4 


I- 512 


O.I 00 


O.752 


0.040 




5 


I.890 


O.I25 


O.940 


0.050 




7 


2.646 


Q-I75 


I. 316 


0.070 




10 


3.780 


O.250 


I.880 


O.IOO 




1 


O.234 


0.020 


0. 141 


0.004 






2 


O.468 


O.040 


O.282 


0.008 




3 


O.702 


O.060 


O.423 


O.OI2 




4 


O.936 


O.080 


O.564 


0.016 




5 


1. 170 


O.IOO 


O.705 


0.020 




7 


I.638 


O.I40 


O.987 


0.028 




10 


2.340 


0.200 


1. 410 


0.040 




1 


0.894 


O.046 


O.391 


0.009 




2 


I.788 


O.O92 


O.782 


0.018 




3 


2.682 


O.I38 


I-I73 


0.027 




4 


3-576 


O.184 


1.564 


0.036 




5 


4.470 


O.23O 


1-955 


0.045 




7 


6.258 


O.322 


2-737 


0.063 




10 


8.940 


O.460 


3.910 


0.090 




1 


O.897 


0.022 


0.428 


0.006 








2 


1-794 


O.044 


0.856 


O.OI2 




3 


2. 691 


O.066 


1.284 


0.018 




4 


3-588 


O.088 


1. 712 


0.024 




5 


4-485 


0. no 


2.140 


0.030 




.7 


6.279 


0.154 


2.996 


0.042 




10 


8.970 


0.220 


4.280 


0.060 




1 


0.898 


0.032 


0.413 


0.008 








2 


1.796 


0.064 


0.826 


0.016 




3 


2.694 


0.096 


1.239 


0.024 




4 


3-592 


0.128 


1.652 


0.032 




5 


449° 


0.160 


2.065 


0.040 




7 


6.286 


0.224 


2.891 


0.056 




10 


8.980 


0.320 


4.130 


0.080 


Kentucky blue grass hay . . . 


1 


0.788 


0.048 


o.373 


0.020 




2 


1-576 


0.096 


0.746 


0.040 




3 


2.364 


0.144 


1. 119 


0.060 




4 


3-152 


0.192 


1.492 


0.080 



TABLE) OF AMOUNTS OF DRY MATTER 



165 



TABLE III. — Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in i, 2, 
3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 Pounds of Feed Stuffs. — {Continued) 



Feed 


Weight 


Dry matter 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Fat 




pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


Kentucky blue grass hay 














5 

7 


3-940 
5-5'6 


O.240 
0.336 


I.865 
2.6ll 


O. IOO 




0.140 




10 


7.880 


O.480 


3- 73o 


0.200 




1 


O.884 


O.024 


0.299 


0.009 




2 


I.768 


O.048 


0.598 


0.018 




3 


2.652 


O.072 


0.897 


0.027 




4 


3-536 


O.096 


1. 196 


0.036 




5 


4.420 


O.I20 


1-495 


0.045 




7 


6.188 


O.I68 


2.093 


0.063 




10 


8.840 


O.240 


2.990 


0.090 




1 


O.860 


O.030 


0.448 


0.009 




2 


I.720 


O.060 


0.896 


0.018 




3 


2.580 


O.090 


i-344 


0.027 




4 


3-440 


O. T20 


1.792 


0.036 




5 


4.300 


0.I50 


2.240 


0.045 




7 


6.020 


0.2IO 


3-I36 


0.063 




10 


8.600 


O.3OO 


4.480 


0.090 


Millet hay (cat tail ) 


1 


O.895 


O.062 


0.421 


0.009 




2 


I.790 


O.I24 


0.842 


0.018 




3 


2.685 


O.I86 


1.263 


0.027 




4 


3-58o 


O.248 


1.684 


0.036 




5 


4-475 


O.3IO 


2.105 


0.045 




7 


6.265 


0.434 


2.947 


0.063 




10 


8.950 


0.620 


4.210 


0.090 


Mixed grass and clover hay. 


1 


0.871 


O.O59 


0.409 


O.OI2 




2 


1.742 


O. Il8 


0.818 


0.024 




3 


2.613 


O.I77 


1.227 


0.036 




4 


3-434 


O.236 


1.636 


0.048 




5 


4-355 


O.295 


2.045 


0.060 




7 


6.097 


O.4I3 


2.863 


0.084 




10 


8.710 


O.590 


4.090 


0.120 


Oat hay (cut in milk stage) . 


1 


0.850 


O.05O 


0.330 


0.014 




2 


1.700 


O. IOO 


0.660 


0.028 




3 


2.550 


O.I50 


0.990 


0.042 




4 


3.400 


0.200 


1.320 


0.056 




5 


4.250 


O.25O 


1.650 


0.070 




7 


5-95o 


0.350 


2.310 


0.098 




10 


8.500 


O.5OO 


3-300 


0.140 




1 


0.901 


O.049 


0.423 


0.014 






2 


1.802 


O.O98 


0.846 


0.028 




3 


2.703 


O.I47 


1.269 


0.042 




4 


3.604 


O.I96 


1.692 


0.056 




5 


4-505 


O.245 


2. 115 


0.070 




7 


6.307 


0.343 


2.961 


0.098 



1 66 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



TABLE III. —Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in i, 2, 
3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 Pounds of Feed Stuffs. — (Continued) 





Weight 


Dry matter 


Protein 


Carbohy- 


Fat 




pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


Orchard grass hay (cont'd) ■ 


IO 


9.OIO 


O.490 


4.230 


O.140 




I 


0.9II 
1.822 


O.048 
O.096 


O.469 
O.938 






2 


0.020 




3 


2-733 


O.I44 


I.407 


O.O30 




4 


3-644 


O.I92 


I.876 


O 040 




5 


4-555 


O.240 


2-345 


O.050 




7 


6-377 


0.336 


3-283 


O.070 




10 


9. 1 10 


O.4S0 


4.690 


O.IOO 




1 


0.834 


O.079 


O.401 


O.OT5 




2 


1.668 


O.I58 


O.S02 


0.030 




3 


2.502 


O.237 


I.203 


0.045 




4 


3-336 


O.316 


I.604 


0.060 




5 


4.170 


0-395 


2.005 


0.075 




7 


5-333 


0-553 


2.807 


0.105 




10 


S.340 


O.79O 


4.OIO 


0.150 






868 




0.434 
0.S6S 


0.014 
0.028 




2 


1.736 


O.O56 




3 


2.604 


O.084 


1.302 


0.042 




4 


3-472 


0. 112 


I.736 


0.056 




5 


4-34o 


O.I40 


2.170 


0.070 




7 


6.076 


O.I96 


3-038 


0.098 




10 


8.680 


O.280 


4-340 


0.140 






0.908 
1.816 




0.386 
0.772 






2 


O.O24 


0.016 




3 


2.724 


O.O36 


1. 158 


0.024 




4 


3-632 


O.O48 


1-544 


0.032 




5 


4-54o 


O.060 


1.930 


0.040 




7 


6.356 


O.084 


2.702 


0.056 




10 


9.080 


0.I20 


3.860 


0.080 






880 


O.O27 
O.054 


0.328 
0.656 






2 


1.760 


0.020 




3 


2.640 


O.oSl 


0.984 


0.030 




4 


3-520 


O.I08 


1.31a 


0.040 




5 


4.400 


O.I35 


1.640 


0.050 




7 


6.160 


O.1S9 


2 296 


0.070 




10 


8.800 


O.270 


3.280 


O.IOO 




1 


0.929 


O.O06 


0.406 


0.004 




2 


1.858 


O.OI2 


0.812 


0.008 




3 


2.787 


O.OlS 


1. 218 


O.OI2 




4 


3-7i6 


0.024 


1.624 


0.016 




5 


4- 645 


O.03O 


2.030 


0.020 




7 


6.503 


O.042 


2.842 


0.028 




10 


9.290 


O.060 


4.060 


0.040 




1 


0.904 


O.OO4 


0.363 


0.004 



table; of amounts of dry matter 



16; 



TABLE III. —Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in i, 2, 
3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 Pounds of Feed Stuffs. — {Continued) 



Peed 


Weight 


Dry matter 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Fat 




pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


Wheat straw (continued) • ■ • 


2 


I.808 


0.008 


O.726 


O.008 




3 


2.712 


O.OI2 


I.089 


O.OI2 




4 


3.616 


O.Ol6 


1-452 


O.016 




5 


4.523 


0.020 


I.8l 5 


O.020 




7 


6.328 


O.028 


2.541 


0.028 




10 


9.040 


O.040 


3-630 


O.040 




1 


O.282 


O.039 


O.126 


0.005 






2 


O.564 


O.078 


O.252 


O.OIO 




3 


O.846 


0.1 17 


0.378 


0.015 




4 


1. 128 


O.156 


O.504 


0.020 




5 


1. 410 


0.195 


0.6^0 


0.025 




7 


1-974 


O.273 


O.882 


-035 




10 


2.820 


O.390 


I.260 


0.050 


Canada field pea (green) . • • 


1 


0.130 


O.023 


O.053 


0.002 




2 


0.260 


O.046 


O.I06 


0.004 




3 


0.390 


O.069 


O.I59 


0.006 




4 


0.520 


O.092 


0.2I2 


0.00S 




5 


0.650 


O.I15 


O.265 


O.OIO 




7 


0.910 


O.161 


O.371 


0.014 




10 


1.300 


O.230 


0.530 


O.O20 




1 


0. 164 
0.328 


O.OlS 


O.087 
O.174 


0.002 




2 


O.036 


0.004 




3 


c.492 


O.054 


O.261 


0.006 




4 


0.656 


O.072 


0.348 


0.008 




5 


0.820 


O.O90 


0-435 


O.OIO 




7 


1. 148 


O.126 


O.609 


0.014 




10 


1.640 


O.180 


O.870 


0.020 




1 


0.916 
1.832 


O. I06 


O.389 
0.778 


0.009 
0.018 




2 


0.2I2 




3 


2.748 


O.318 


1. 167 


0.027 




4 


3.664 


O.424 


1-556 


0.036 




5 


4.580 


0.530 


1-945 


0.045 




7 


6.412 


O.742 


2.723 


0.063 




10 


9 160 


I.060 


3.890 


0.090 




1 


0.903 
1.806 


O.084 
O.I68 


0.425 
0.850 


0.015 

0.030 




2 




3 


2.709 


O.252 


1-275 


0.045 




4 


3.612 


0.336 


1.700 


0.060 




5 


4-515 


O.420 


2.125 


0.075 




7 


6.321 


O.588 


2-975 


0.105 




10 


9.030 


O.840 


4.250 


0.150 




1 


0.881 


O.093 


0.384 


O.OI2 




2 


1.762 


O.186 


0.768 


0.024 




3 


2.643 


O.279 


1. 152 


0.036 




4 


3-524 


O.372 


1-536 


0.048 



1 68 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



TABLE III. —Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in i, 2, 
3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 Pounds of Feed Stuffs. — (Continued) 



Feed 


Weight 
pounds 


Dry matter 
pounds 


Protein 
pounds 


Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 


Fat 
pounds 


Cowpea vine hay (cont'd) • • 


5 

7 

10 


4.405 
6.167 
8.810 


O.465 
O.651 
O.930 


I.920 
2.688 
3.840 


O.060 
O.084 
O.I20 




1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
7 
10 


O.904 
I.808 
2.712 
3.616 
4.520 
6.328 
9 040 


O.I05 
0.210 

0.3I5 
O.420 

0.525 
0.735 
I.050 


0.349 
O.698 
I.047 
1-396 

1-745 
2-443 
3490 


O.OI2 
O.024 
O.036 
O.048 
O.060 
O.084 
O.I20 


Lespedeza (Japan clover) hay 


1 
2 
3 

4 

5 

7 

10 


O.897 

1-794 
2.691 

3-588 

4-485 
6.279 
8.970 


O.076 
O.I52 
O.228 
O.304 
O.380 
0.532 
O.760 


O.422 
O.844 
I.266 
1.688 
2. no 

2-954 
4.220 


O.OlS 
O.036 
O.054 
O.072 
O.090 
O.I26 
O.180 


Peanut vine hay (without 


1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
7 
10 


0.924 

1.848 
2.772 
3.696 
4.620 
6.468 
9.240 


O 067 

O.I34 
0.20I 
O.268 

0-335 
O.469 
O.670 


0.422 
0.844 
1.266 
1.688 
2. 1 10 

2-954 
4.220 


0.030 
O.060 
O.090 
O.I20 
O.150 
0.2I0 
O.300 




Soja (soy) bean hay. ...... 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
7 
10 


0.887 

1-774 
2.661 

3-548 
4-435 
6.209 
8.870 


O.IO9 
O.218 
O.327 
O.436 
0.545 
O.763 
I.090 


0.402 
0.804 
1.206 
1.608 
2.010 
2.814 
4.020 


O.OI5 
O.030 
O.045 
O.060 
O.075 
O.IO5 
O.150 




1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
7 
10 


0.887 

1-774 
2.661 
3-548 
4-435 
6.209 
8.870 


O.129 
O.258 
O.387 
O.516 
O.645 
0.903 
I.29C 


0-375 
0.750 
1. 125 
1.500 

1.875 
2.625 

3-750 


0.014 
O.028 
O.042 
O.056 
O.070 
O.098 
O.140 




Vetch and oats ( 1- 1 ) hay . . • 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
7 


0.850 
1.700 
2-55o 
3.400 
4-250 
5-95Q 


0.083 
O.166 
O.249 
0.332 
0.4 '5 
0581 


0342 
0.684 
1.026 
1.368 
1. 710 
2-394 


0.014 
O.028 
0,042 
O.056 
O.070 
O.098 



TABLE OF AMOUNTS OF DRY MATTER 



169 



TABLE III.— Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in i, 2, 
3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 Pounds of Feed Stuffs. — {Continued) 



Feed 


Weight 


Dry matter 


Protein 


Carbohy- 


Fat 


pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


rates 
pounds 


pounds 


Vetch and oats ( 1-1 ) hay 














IO 


8.500 


O.830 


3.420 


O.140 






I 


0.209 


0.009 


0.1 13 


0.007 






2 


0.418 


O Ol8 


0.226 


O.OI4 




3 


0.627 


O.027 


0-339 


O.02I 




4 


0.836 


O.036 


O.452 


O.028 




5 


I.045 


O.045 


0.565 


O.035 




7 


I.463 


O.063 


O.79I 


0.049 




10 


2.090 


O.090 


1. 130 


O.070 




1 


0.207 
O.414 


O.OI5 
O.030 


O.086 
O.I72 


0.009 
O.OI8 




2 




3 


0.6a I 


O.045 


O.258 


O.027 




4 


0.828 


O.060 


0-344 


O.036 




5 


I-035 


O.075 


0.430 


O.045 




7 


I.449 


O.I05 


O.602 


O.063 




10 


2.070 


O.150 


O.860 


0.090 




1 


0.258 


O.027 


O.087 


O.OI3 






2 


0.516 


O.054 


O.I74 


0.026 




3 


0.774 


O.081 


O.26I 


O.039 




4 


I.032 


O.I08 


O.348 


O.052 




5 


I.290 


O.I35 


0.435 


O.065 




7 


I.806 


O.189 


O.609 


O.09I 




10 


2.580 


O.270 


O.870 


O.130 




1 


0.239 
0.478 


O.O06 


O.I49 
O.298 


0.002 




2 


O.OI2 


O.O04 




3 


0.717 


O.OI8 


O.447 


0.006 




4 


0.956 


O.024 


0.596 


0.008 




5 


I -195 


O.030 


0.745 


O.OIO 




7 


1-673 


O.042 


I.043 


0.014 




10 


2.390 


O.060 


I.490 


0.020 




1 


0. 114 
0.22S 


O.OIO 


0.0S1 
0.162 


002 
0.004 




2 


0.020 




3 


0.342 


0.030 


0.243 


0.006 




4 


0.456 


0.040 


0.324 


0.008 




5 


0.570 


0.050 


0.405 


O.OIO 




7 


0.798 


0.070 


0.567 


014 




10 


1. 140 


0. IOO 


0.810 


0.020 




1 


O.091 


O.OII 


0.054 


O.OOI 




2 


0.182 


0.022 


0.108 


0.002 




3 


0.273 


0.033 


0.162 


0.003 




4 


0.364 


0.044 


0.216 


0.004 




5 


0-455 


0.055 


0.270 


0.005 




7 


0.637 


0.077 


0.378 


0.007 




10 


0.910 


O.IIO 


0.540 


O.OIO 


Potato (Irish) 


j 


0.2 1 1 
0.422 


0.009 
0.018 


0.163 
0.326 


O.OOI 

0.002 




2 



170 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



TABLE III.— Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in 1, 2, 
3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 Pounds of Feed Stuffs. — (Continued) 



Feed 


Weight 


Dry matter 


Protein 


Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 


Fat 




pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


Potato (Irish) (continued).. 


3 


-633 


O.027 


0.489 


0.003 




4 


0.844 


O.036 


O.652 


O.004 




5 


I-055 


O.045 


O.815 


0.005 




7 


1-477 


O.063 


1. 141 


0.007 




10 


2. no 


O.090 


I.630 


O.OIO 




1 


0.289 


0.009 


0.222 


0.003 






2 


0.578 


O.OlS 


O.444 


006 




3 


0.867 


O.027 


O.666 


0.009 




4 


1-156 


0.036 


0.8S8 


O.OI2 




5 


1-445 


O.045 


1. no 


0.015 




7 


2.023 


O.063 


1-554 


0.021 




10 


2.890 


O.090 


2.220 


0.030 




1 


0.1 14 


O.OIO 


o.oSr 


0.002 






2 


0.228 


0.020 


0.162 


0.004 




3 


0.342 


0.030 


0.243 


0.006 




4 


0.456 


0.040 


0.324 


0.008 




5 


0.570 


0.050 


0.405 


O.OIO 




7 


0.798 


0.070 


0.567 


0.014 




10 


1. 140 


0. IOO 


0.810 


0.020 




1 


099 


0.039 


0.040 






O.OI I 




2 


0.198 


0.078 


0.080 


0.022 




3 


0.297 


0. 117 


0.120 


0.033 




4 


0.396 


0.156 


O.I60 


044 




5 


o.495 


0.195 


0.200 


0.055 




7 


0.693 


0.273 


O.280 


0.077 




10 


0.990 


0.390 


O.4OO 


0. no 


Skim milk (centrifugal) .... 


1 


0.094 


0.029 


O.O52 


0.003 




2 


0.188 


0.058 


O.IO4 


0.006 




3 


0.282 


0.087 


O.I56 


0.009 




4 


0.376 


0. 116 


0.208 


0.012 




5 


0.470 


0.145 


O.260 


0.015 




7 


0.658 


0.203 


O.364 


0.021 




10 


0.940 


0.290 


O.520 


0.030 




1 


0.096 


0.031 


O.047 


0.008 




2 


0. 192 


0.062 


O.O94 


0.016 




3 


0.288 


0.093 


O.I4I 


0.024 




4 


0.384 


0.124 


O.I88 


0.032 




5 


0.480 


0.155 


0.235 


0.040 




7 


0.672 


0.217 


O.329 


0.056 




10 


0.960 


0.310 


O.47O 


0.080 


Whey 


1 


0.062 


0.006 


O.047 






0.00 1 




2 


0.124 


O.OI2 


O.O94 


0.002 




3 


0.186 


0.018 


0.141 


0.003 




4 


0.248 


0.024 


O.I88 


0.004 




5 


0.310 


0.030 


0.235 


0.005 



TABLE OF AMOUNTS OF DRY MATTER 



171 



TABLE III.— Dry Matter and Digestible Nutrients in i, 2, 
3, 4, 5, 7 and 10 Pounds of Feed Stuffs. — (Cotitinued) 



Feed 


Weight 
pounds 


Dry matter 
pounds 


Protein 
pounds 


Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 


Fat 
pounds 




7 
10 


o.434 
0.620 


O.042 
O.060 


O.329 

O.470 


O.O07 
O.OIO 






1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
7 
10 


0.095 
0.190 
0.285 
380 

0.475 
0.665 
0.950 


O.Ol8 
O.036 
O.054 
O.072 
O.090 
O.I26 
O.180 


O.042 
O.084 
O.126 
O.168 
0.210 
O.294 
O.420 


O.O04 
O.O08 
O.OI2 
O Ol6 
0.020 
O.028 
O.040 






1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
7 
10 


O.I55 
0.310 
0.465 
0.620 

o.775 
I.085 
I-550 


O.OI5 
O.030 
O.045 
O.060 
O.075 
O.I05 
O.150 


O.081 
O.162 
O.243 
O.324 

O.405 
O.567 
O.SlO 






0.004 
O.O06 
0.008 
O.OIO 

0.014 
0.020 



for 4 and 5 lbs. or multiply the amounts for 3 lbs., by 3. If Y? 
lb. is needed, take 1/10 of 5 lbs. or divide the amounts for 1 lb., 
by 2. For 50, 100, 200, 300 lbs., etc., a simple multiplication 
will give the amounts required. 

A Ration Computed by Using Table III. — Let us figure a ration 
by using this table. Supposing we have some cattle we wish to 
fatten for the market. The standard, Table II, for the pre- 
liminary period for fattening cattle of 1,000 lbs. live weight is : 



Dry matter 
pounds 


Protein 
pounds 


Carbohydrates 
pounds 


Nutritive 
ratio 


27 


2-5 


I6.I 


1:6.4 



If corn and cob meal, alfalfa hay and cotton-seed meal should 
be available, we could try the following amounts which are 
given in Table III. 



17-2 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 



10 lbs. corn and cob ineal 
15 lbs. alfalfa hay ....... 

1 lb. cotton-seed meal • 

26 lbs. total 

Ration 

Standard 



Dry matter 
pound' 



8.490 

I3-740 

O.918 

23.148 



23.148 

27. 



Protein 
pounds 



O.440 

I-590 
O.372 



2.402 



2.402 
2-5 



Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



6.000 

5-835 
O.169 



12.004 



I3-235 
16. 1 



Fat 
pounds 



O.290 

O.I35 
O.I22 



0-547 

Nutritiye 
ratio 

i:5.5 
1:6.4 



Our ration is too low in carbohydrates to be satisfactory. 
Corn and cob meal contains a larger percentage of carbohydrates 
than the other feeds included in this ration. Therefore we will 
use 15 lbs of corn and cob meal. The protein in our trial 
ration is almost equal to that of the standard and by using 15 
lbs. of corn and cob meal the protein will be too high. Let 
us try reducing the amount of alfalfa hay to 14 lbs. and compare 
our ration to the standard. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Protein 
pounds 



Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



Fat 
pounds 



15 lbs. corn and cob meal 

14 lbs. alfalfa hay 

1 lb. cotton-seed meal . 

30 ibs. total 

Ration 

Standard 



12.735 

12.824 

0.918 

26.477 



26.477 

27. 



0.660 
1.484 
o.3'/2 

2.516 



2.516 
2-5 



9.000 
5.446 
0.169 

14.615 



16.15 
16.1 



o.435 
0.126 
0.122 

0.683 

Nutritive 
ratio 

1:6.4 
1:6.4 



This ration is very close to the standard. 

Suggestion : — Compute a ration for farm work horses aver- 
aging 1,200 lbs., doing heavy farm work, from oats, linseed 
meal, corn and cob meal and timothy hay. How much of each 
concentrate would be required to last 15 horses of this weight 
for a month? 



SECTION XXVII. 



STANDARDS FOR MUCH COWS. 

Wolff's standard for milch cows, which has been generally 
used, has been found to be unsatisfactory for American feeders. 
Many investigations have been conducted to determine the re- 
quirements for milch cows in this country. 

Adjust the Ration to the Cow's Needs. — Haecker in Minnesota 
Bui. 79, says : "It has long since been recognized that because 
of the difference in composition of the various kinds of feed 
stuffs no single standard of composition for all feeds would be 
practical, and yet, while there is as great a difference in the 
composition of milks as there is in feed stuffs, there has been no 
adjustment of the nutrients in the ration to the quantity and 
character of the solids contained in the milk yielded, though 
such an adjustment is simple and practicable. If in formulating 
a ration it is deemed necessary in economic milk production, to 
take note of the fact that one feed stuff contains 12 per cent, 
protein and another 20 per cent., is it not equally important in 
our attempt to adjust the ration to the needs of the cow in milk 
production to also take into account the fact that one cow may 
give milk containing 3 per cent, fat while that of another may 
contain twice as much? It would seem quite as consistent to 
feed an animal food regardless of its composition as to feed an 
assumed balanced ration regardless of the composition of the 
product which is to be elaborated from the nutrients in the food. 

"Great stress has been placed upon the fact that the nutrients 
in milk have a nutritive ratio of approximately one to five, and 
that therefore the ration for a milch cow should have a similar 
nutritive ratio ; apparently overlooking the fact that only 50 per 
cent, of the ration is used in milk production and the balance 
for maintenance of body. If note is taken of the fact that 
about half the ration is used for maintenance and that the main- 
tenance ration has a nutritive ratio of one to ten. it becomes 
apparent that for the production of milk of average quality by 
an animal of average milk producing powers the nutritive ratio 
of the ration should be approximately 1 : 7.5. But since animals 



1/4 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

vary in productive powers, and since this variation is not in 
proportion to weight of body, it follows that if rations are ad- 
justed to the actual requirements of animals the nutritive ratio 
of the rations will also vary." 

A New World Record. 

"It remained for the Missouri College of Agriculture at Colum- 
bia, Missouri, to raise and develop the Champion Dairy Cow of 
all the world. Missouri Chief Josephine, a Holstein-Friesian cow 




liii 
■Sit 



l$&*aM%Z3l&*s&H^r!S4m8mKKm*« . 




Fig. 12.— Missouri Chief Josephine. 
(Courtesy Missouri Experiment Station.) 

finished her six months test on July 18th, producing 17,008.8 
pounds, an average of 93.4 pounds of milk daily for 182 days. 
This is equivalent to 46.7 quarts, or 11.6 gallons every day. 
Her highest record for one day was 1 10.2 pounds. This record 
is the more remarkable because no special preparation had been 
made for this test and Josephine has done her full duty in the 
regular dairy herd of the University, having had five calves in 
five and one-half years. 



STANDARDS FOR MILCH COWS 175 

Not only has this record smashed all previous worlds records 
for milk production, but the per cent, of butter fat is increasing 
daily, so that, barring accidents this cow will undoubtedly pro- 
duce more butter during a period of twelve months than any other 
cow that has ever been tested in the world. 

This cow is but one of a number of remarkable cows owned 
by the University of Missouri and maintained solely for the in- 
struction of its students -in Agriculture and for investigational 
purposes. Only twenty Jersey cows in the history of the world 
have produced more than 700 pounds of butter in one year. Five 
of these cows, or 25 per cent, of the total number are owned and 
were bred by this Missouri institution. The College owns more 
than 300 pure bred and registered animals, belonging to 17 
distinct breeds. 

Josephine's record exceeds the present world's record for six 
months by 1,458 pounds." 



The table on page 176 of standards for milch cows has been 
compiled from Haecker's work, giving the requirements for 
cows weighing 1,000 lbs. producing the stated quantities of milk 
of stated butter fat. 

Maintenance and Milk Production Requirements. — The stand- 
ards in the table include the requirements for maintenance and 
milk production and are based on 1,000 lbs. live weight. In- 
vestigations have demonstrated that the maintenance per 100 
lbs. live weight, namely, 0.07 of a pound of digestible protein, 
0.7 of a pound of digestible carbohydrates and 0.01 of a pound 
of digestible fat, which is given at the head of the preceding 
table, are ample for maintaining the average cow. 

To compute the maintenance requirements for any live weight, 
say 600, 700 or 800 lbs., simply multiply the maintenance for 100 
lbs. by 6, 7 or 8 as the case may be. For milk production re- 
quirements, divide the production of milk by 10 and multiply 
the standard for each additional 10 lbs. by this result. The 
standard required would be the sum of the maintenance and 
milk production requirements. 



176 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Maintenance per 100 lbs. 

live weight 

10 pounds of milk 



10 " " 


10 " " 


15 " " 


15 " •' 


15 " " 


20 " " 


22 " " 


20 " " 


25 " " 


25 " " 


35 " " 


3P " " 


30 


30 " " 


35 " " 


35 " " 


40 " " 


40 " " 


40 " " 


50 


For each adc 



additional 10 lbs. 



Per cent. 

butter 

fat 



Protein 
pounds 



O.07 

I. IO 

1. 17 

I.24 

I.30 

I.405 

i-5i 

1.50 

1.64 

1.78 

1.70 

1-875 

2.05 

1.90 

2. 11 

2.32 

2.10 

2-345 

2-59 

2.30 

2.58 
2.86 
0.40 
0.47 
o.54 



Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



0.7 

8.8l 
9.14 
9.48 

9.7I5 
I0.2I 
IO.72 
IO.62 
II.28 
II.96 

IL525 

12.35 

13.20 

12.43 
1342 
14.44 

13-335 
14.49 

I5.69 

14.24 

I5-56 

16.92 

1. 8l 

2.14 

2.48 



Fat 
pounds 



O.OI 
O.24 
O.26 
O.28 
0.31 
0-34 
037 
O.38 
O.42 
O.46 

0.45 
O.50 

o-55 
0.52 
0.58 
0.64 

o.59 
0.66 

o.73 
0.66 
0.74 
0.82 
0.14 
0.16 
0.18 



Nutritive 
ratio 



i:8.5 
1:8.3 
i:8.2 
1:8.0 
17.8 
K7.6 
1:7.6 
i:7.5 
i:7.3 
1:7.4 
1:7.2 
1:7.0 
I7.2 
1:7.0 
i:6.8 
1:7.0 
1:6.8 
1:6.7 
1:6.8 
1:6.7 
1:6.6 



Maintenance require- 
ment for a cow weigh- 
ing 850 lbs. 



Use of the Table. — Let us make this clearer by computing the 
standard for a cow weighing 850 lbs. producing 23 lbs. of milk 
daily, testing 5 per cent, butter fat. 

Since 850 is 8.5 X 100, we must multiply our maintenance 

(0.07 lb. protein; 0.7 lb. carbohydrates and 0.01 fat) by 8.5. 

0.07 X 8.5 = 0.595 lb. of protein 

0.7 X 8.5 = 5950 lbs. of carbohydrates 

0.01 X 8.5 = 0.085 lb. of fat 

Since our cow is producing 23 lbs. of milk, we divide 23 by 10 
which gives us 2.3. Multiply the standard for each additional 
10 lbs. of 5 per cent, butter fat milk (0.54 lb. protein, 2.48 lbs., 
carbohydrates and 0.18 lb. fat) by 2.3 which gives us the milk 
production requirement. 

0.54 X 2.3 -1.182 lbs. of protein ] Milk production requirement 

2.48 X 2.3 = 5.704 lbs. of carbohydrates for .f cpwproducing 23 lbs. of 

0.18 X 2.3 = 0.414 lb. of fat " n ' k d f]y testin S 5 percent. 

J butter fat. 



STANDARDS FOR MILCH COWS 



177 



The sum of the maintenance and the milk production require- 
ments is the amount required. 

Requirement Requirement standard 
milk reouired 

maintenance production q 

Pounds of protein °-595 + 1.182 = 1.777 

Pounds of carbohydrates 5-95° + 5-7°4 — IT -654 

Pounds of fat 0.085 + °-4 I 4 = °-499 

As previously stated the standards in the table are on the 
basis of 1,000 lbs. live weight. Therefore to compute the stand- 
ard for a cow of this weight (1,000 lbs.) it is not necessary to 
figure the maintenance and milk production requirements, as 
this work has already been done and is included in the table. 

A Ration. — The following ration for a cow weighing 1,000 
lbs. producing 25 lbs. of milk daily, testing 4 per cent, butter fat, 
illustrates how feed stuffs may be compounded to meet the 
standards as laid down in this table. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



2 lbs. linseed meal (new process) 

6 lbs. corn and cob meal 

7.Y2. lbs. dried brewers' grains . . . 

40 lbs. corn silage 

6 lbs. red top hay 

Ration 

Standard 



1.80 

5-09 
2.30 
8.40 

5 47 

23.06 



Protein 
pounds 



Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



O.56 
O.26 
O.40 
0.36 
O.29 

I.87 

1.875 



O.80 
3.60 
0.90 
4.40 
2.8l 

12.51 
12.35 



Fat 
pounds 



0.06 
0.17 
0.13 
0.28 
0.06 

0.70 
O.50 



The carbohydrates and fat are a little high but the ration 
approximates the standard close enough for all practical pur- 
poses. 

A Narrow Nutritive Ratio is Sometimes Economical. — Dairy- 
men have learned by practical experience that Haecker's stand- 
ards are too wide (that is there is too high a proportion of 
carbohydrates and fat to protein) for the most economical pro- 
duction of milk where protein is cheap and carbohydrates rela- 
tively expensive. In all probability Haecker's table is suitable 
for the Northwest and other sections where protein is expen- 
sive and carbohydrates comparatively cheap. Prof. E. L. Jor- 



178 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



dan of the Louisiana State University and the writer adapted the 
following table from Haecker's work to meet the demands of 
feeders who wish to employ narrow rations for milch cows. 



Per cent. 

butter 

fat 



Protein 
pounds 



Carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 



Fat 
pounds 



Nutritive 
ratio 



10 pounds of milk 



15 
15 
20 
20 
25 
25 
30 
30 
35 
35 
40 
40 
For each additional 10 lbs. 



1-3 

1.4 

1.6 

1-75 

i-9 

2.1 

2.2 

2-45 

2-5 

2.8 

2.8 

315 

3-i 

3-5 

0.60 

0.70 



9.14 
9.48 
10.21 
10.72 
11.28 
11.96 

12.35 
13.20 

13-42 
14.44 
14.49 
15.68 
I5-56 
16.92 
2.14 
2.48 



0.26 
0.28 
o.34 
o-37 
0.42 
0.46 
0.50 

o.55 
0.58 
0.64 
0.66 

o-73 
0.74 
0.82 
0.16 
0.18 



i:7-5 
1:7.2 
1:6.9 
1:6.6 
1:6.4 
1:6.2 
1:6.1 
i:5-9 
i:5-9 
i:5-7 
1=5-7 
i:5-5 
1:5.6 
i:5-4 



Woll of the Wisconsin Experiment Station says : "At the 
prices of feeding stuffs in the North Central States it will not, as 
a general rule, pay to feed a narrower ratio to dairy cows than 
1 : 6.0 and we find that the cows in our University herd fed 
according to our best judgment receive on the average rations 
with a nutritive ratio of about 1 : 6.5 to 7.0. The heavier pro- 
ducers in the herd naturally receive more grain feed than the low 
producers and their rations, therefore, have a narrower nutritive 
ratio, but it is very rarely that we find it necessary to go below 
1 : 6.0. The starchy feeds are cheaper than the protein feeds 
with us and unless the cow has an exceptional productive capaci- 
ty a medium or somewhat wide nutritive ratio is more economical 
than a narrow one." 

Suggestion : A gallon of milk weighs 8.6 lbs. Compute 
two rations for a cow weighing 825 lbs. producing 2 Y / 2 gallons 
of milk a day, testing 4 per cent, butter fat, according to the 
standards in the two tables in this section, from mixed hay, 
corn meal, linseed meal and wheat bran. 



SECTION XXVIII. 



COMPUTATION OF RATIONS ACCORDING TO ENERGY VALUES. 

The tables given in the foregoing pages on composition, di- 
gestible nutrients and standards are those commonly used in 
compounding rations. Armsby of the Pennsylvania Experiment 
Station and G. Kuhn and Kellner of the Mockern Experiment 
Station of Germany have been conducting investigations as to 
the protein and energy values of feeds, and the requirements 
of animals, by means of the respiration apparatus. 

The following table of digestible protein and energy values 
is taken from Farmers' Bui. 346. The energy value represents 
the production value, or the value of the feed stuffs cited for 
the production of gain in fattening animals. The protein rep- 
resents what is available for repair material. 



TABLE IV.— Dry Matter, Digestible Protein, and Energy 
Values Per 100 Pounds. 1 



Feeding stuff 



Total dry 


Digestible 


matter 


protein 


pounds 


pounds 


28.2 


2.50 


19. 1 


2.19 


29.2 


2.21 


20.7 


O.4I 


25.6 


I. 21 


28.9 


i-33 


14-3 


2.16 


23-4 


1.44 


38.4 


1.04 


91.6 


6-93 


84.7 


5-41 


57-8 


2.13 


59-5 


1.80 


89-3 


8.57 


92.3 


3.00 


84.0 


2-59 


88.7 


7.68 


868 


2.05 



Energy 
value 
therms 



Green Fodder and Silage 

Alfalfa 

Clover — crimson 

Clover — red 

Corn fodder — green 

Corn silage 

Hungarian grass 

Rape 

Rye 

Timothy 

Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders 

Alfalfa hay 

Clover hay — red 

Corn forage, field cured 

Corn stover 

Cowpea hay . . 

Hungarian hay • 

Oat hay 

Soy bean hay 

Timothy hay 

1 Farmers' Bui. 346. 



12.45 
II.30 
16.17 
12.44 
16.56 
14.76 

H-43 
11.63 
19.08 

34-41 
34-74 
3o.53 
26.53 
42.76 

44-03 
36.97 
3865 
33-56 



l8o ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



TABLE IV.— Dry Matter, Digestible Protein, and Energy 
Values Per ioo Pounds. — [Continued) 



Feeding stuff 



Straws 

Oat straw 

Rye straw ........ 

Wheat straw 

Roots and Tubers 



Carrots 

Mangel wurzels . . . 

Potatoes .......... 

Rutabagas 

Turnips 

Grains 

Barley 

Corn 

Corn -and -cob meal 

Oats 

Pea meal • • 

Rye 

Wheat 

By-Products 



Brewers' grains — dried 
Brewers' grains — wet ...... 

Buckwheat middlings 

Cotton-seed meal 

Distillers' grains — dried 

Principally corn 

Principally rye 

Gluten feed — dry 

Gluten meal — Buffalo 

Gluten meal — Chicago 

Linseed meal — old process . 
Linseed meal — new process 

Malt sprouts 

Rye bran 

Sugar-beet pulp — fresh 

Sugar-beet pulp — dried 

Wheal bran 

Wheat middlings 



Total dry 
matter 
pounds 



90.8 
92.9 

90.4 

II. 4 

21. 1 

11. 4 

94 

89.1 
89.1 

84.9 
890 

89-5 
88.4 

89.5 

92 o 

24-3 
88 2 
91.8 

93o 

93 2 
91.9 
91.8 

9o-5 
90.8 
90.1 
89.8 
88.2 
10. 1 
93-6 
88 1 
84.0 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



I.09 
O.63 
0.37 

0.37 
O.14 

045 
O.88 
0.22 

8.37 
6.79 

4-53 
8.36 
16.77 
8.12 
8.90 

19.04 

3.81 

22.34 

35-15 

21.93 
10.38 

19-95 
21.56 

33-09 
27-54 
29 26 
12.36 

H-35 

0.63 

6.80 

10.21 

12.79 



Energy 
value 
therms 



21.21 
20.87 
16.56 

7.82 

4 62 

18.05 

8.00 

5-74 

80.75 
88.84 
72.05 
66.27 

71-75 
81.72 
82.63 

60.01 
14.82 
75-92 
84.20 

79-23 
60.93 

79-32 
8880 
78.49 
78.92 
74.67 

46.33 
56.65 
7-77 
60.10 
48.23 
77-65 



The Feed Requirements given in Table V may not be abso- 
lutely accurate but they are perhaps as near to the true re- 
quirements as those we are accustomed to using. The intelli- 
gent feeder can compound rations from this table that will meet 



COMPUTATION OF RATIONS 



181 



the requirements of his animals. The requirements for swine 
have not been worked out. The per cent, of digestible protein, 
being true protein (crude protein minus the amides) will be 
smaller in amount than the digestible protein of the standards 
given in Table II. 

TABLE V.— Feed Requirements 1 





Age 


Eive 


Digestible 


Energy 




weight 


protein 4 


value 






pounds 


pounds 


therms 






I50 
250 


O.I5 
0.20 


I.70 
2.40 












500 


O.30 


3.80 







750 


O.40 


4-95 







IOOO 


O.50 


6.00 







1250 


O.60 


7.00 







1500 


O.65 


7.90 




3 


275 


I. IO 


5-o 




6 


425 


I.30 


6.0 




12 


650 


I.65 


7.0 




IS 


850 


I.70 


7-5 




24 


IOOO 


1-75 


8.0 




3° 


I IOO 


1.65 


8.0 






150 
250 


0.30 
0.40 









2.8 







500 


0.60 


4.4 







750 


0.80 


5-8 







IOOO 


1. 00 


7.0 







1250 


1.20 


8.15 







1500 


1.30 


9.2 










9.8 
12.4 








1.4 
2.0 







IOOO 












0.03 
0.05 


0.30 
o.54 







40 







60 


0.07 


0.71 







80 


0.09 


0.87 







IOO 


0. 10 


1. 00 







120 


0. n 


I-I3 







140 


0.13 


1-25 




6 


70 


0.30 






1.30 




9 


90 


0.25 


1.40 




12 


no 


0.23 


1.40 




15 


130 


0.23 


1.50 




18 


145 


0.22 


1.60 



1 Farmers' Bui. 346. 

2 Including the maintenance requirements. 

3 After Kellner. 

4 True protein, amides not included. 



102 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 

TABLE V '.—{Continued.) 

Estimated Energy Value of i Pound of Gain in Weight 





Age 
months 


Live 

weight 
pounds 


Digestible 
protein 
pounds 


Energy 
value 
therms 


Growing cattle and growing sheep . • • 


3 
6 

12 

18 

24 

30 








I-50 
1-75 
2.00 
2.50 

2-75 
3.00 


Fattening cattle i lb. gain live weight 


— 








3-5 


One lb. milk production requirement- 


— 





O.05 


o-3 



How to Compute the Requirement. — Let us compute a ration 
for a dairy cow weighing 875 lbs., producing 25 lbs. of milk 
daily. 

Referring to Table V we find the maintenance requirements 
for cows weighing 750 lbs. and 1,000 lbs. are: 

750 lb. cow 1,000 lb. cow 

Digestible protein, pounds 0.40 0.50 

Energy, therms 4.95 6.00 

The difference between 875 and 1,000 is the same as the dif- 
ference between 750 and 875. Therefore the maintenance re- 
quirement for a cow weighing 875 lbs. is : 

Digestible protein 0.45 pound 

Energy ■ 5-475 therms 

For the production of 25 lbs. of milk we would need accord- 
ing to Table V : 

Digestible protein (25 X 0.05) = 1.25 pounds 

Energy • (25 X 0.3 ) = 7.50 therms 

The total requirement then is: 

Digestible Energy 

protein value 

pounds therms 

Maintenance ■ 0.45 5-475 

Milk production 1.25 7-5°° 

Total requirement — - 1.70 12.975 



COMPUTATION OF RATIONS 



183 



How to Compute the Ration. — Let us suppose cotton-seed meal, 
corn meal, wheat middlings, oat hay and rye straw are avail- 
able. Our previous study has taught us that we should en- 
deavor to supply 12 to 14 pounds of dry matter from roughage, 
as roughage generally is our cheapest source of feed. We have 
been taught that the amount of roughage should be limited be- 
cause an animal can only properly consume a certain amount of 
roughage. Rye straw and oat hay are the feeds which are 
available as roughage. 

In Table IV we find that 100 lbs. of rye straw and oat hay 
contain : 



Rye straw 

Oat hay 84.0 



Let us see what 8 lbs. of rye straw will furnish : 

92.9 X °-°8 = 7-43 2 pounds dry matter 
0.63 X °-°S = -°5°4 pound digestible protein 
20.87 X °-°8 — 1.6696 therms of energy value 

Eight pounds of rye straw furnish 7.432 lbs. of dry matter. By 
a simple calculation we find that 6 lbs. of oat hay will furnish 
the remaining dry matter required from roughage. The amounts 
for oat hay are arrived at in the same way as for rye straw. 



Dry 
matter 
pounds 


Digestible 
protein 
pounds 


Energy 
value 
therms 


92.9 


0.63 


20.87 


84.0 


2-59 


36.97 



8 pounds rye straw 
6 pounds oat hay • . 

Total 



Dry matter 
pounds 



7-432 
5.040 



12.472 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



O.0504 
O.I554 

0.2058 



Energy 
value 
therms 



I.6696 



We must supply the difference between what we have figured 
for roughage and the requirement (1.7 lbs. digestible protein 
and 12.975 therms of energy value) with the available concen- 
trates (cotton-seed meal, corn meal and wheat middlings). 



184 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Addition of Concentrates. — Let us try 3 lbs. of cotton-seed meal, 
3 lbs. of corn meal and 2 lbs. of wheat middlings and add these 
to our roughage. The amounts for the concentrates are cal- 
culated in a similar manner from Table IV as illustrated for 
rye straw. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



Energy 
value 
therms 



8 pounds rye straw 

6 pounds oat hay 

3 pounds cotton-seed meal 

3 pounds corn meal 

2 pounds wheat middlings 

Ration 

Requirement 



7432 
5 040 
2-754 
2.673 
1.680 

19-579 



0.0504 
o 1554 
1-0545 
0.2037 
0.2558 

1-7198 
1.70 



1.6696 
2.2182 
2.5260 
2.6652 
I-5530 

10.6320 
12-975 



Our ration meets the protein requirement but it is deficient 
in therms of energy value. 

Balancing the Ration. — In order to bring the energy value to 
the requirement we must add some corn meal, as this feed stuff 
contains a relatively larger proportion of therms than the other 
available concentrates. We must reduce the quantity of cot- 
ton-seed meal because an addition of corn meal will make the 
protein too high. We will try 6 lbs. of corn meal and 2 lbs. 
of cotton-seed meal and compare the ration to the requirement. 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



Energy 
value 
therms 



8 pounds rye straw ....... 

6 pounds oat hay 

2 pounds cotton-seed meal 
6 pounds corn meal ....... 

2 pounds wheat middlings 

Ration ... 

Requirement 



7-432 
5.040 
1836 
5-346 
1.680 

21-334 



0.0504 

O.I554 
o. 7030 
0.4074 
0.2558 

1.5720 
1.70 



1 . 6696 
2.2182 
1 6840 
5-3304 
1 -5530 

124552 

12.975 



The ration is slightly deficient in digestible protein and energy 
value. Let us add 1 lb. of wheat middlings to the ration. 



COMPUTATION OF RATIONS 



185 



Dry matter 
pounds 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



Energy 
value 
therms 



8 pounds rye straw 

6 pounds oat hay 

2 pounds cotton-seed meal 
6 pounds corn rneal 

3 pounds wheat middlings 



Ration 

Requirement. 



7-432 
5.040 
1.836 
5-346 
2.520 

22.174 



o 0504 

O.I554 
0.7030 
0.4074 
o.3837 

1.6999 

1.70 



1 . 6696 
2.2182 
1.6840 
5.3304 
2.3295 

13.2317 
12.975 



The ration as it now stands approximates the requirement, al- 
though the energy value is a little high ; the ration is close 




Fig. 13 — A typical roadster— after Good. 

enough when we consider that all standards are not absolutely- 
correct but merely guides for the intelligent feeder., 

A Ration for a Horse. — It is a simple matter to figure a ration 
for a horse by the use of energy values. A ration for a horse 
13 



lS6 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



doing medium work, weighing 1,200 lbs. computed from timothy 
hay, oats, corn and wheat bran would be calculated as follows. 
Table V gives maintenance and work requirement for a horse 
doing medium work weighing 1,000 lbs. as, 

Digestible protein 1.4 pounds 

Energy value 12.4 therms 

As our horse weighs 1,200 lbs. we must increase this require- 
ment one-fifth, since 200 is one-fifth of 1,000. 



Live weight 
pounds 

1,000 
200 



Digestible protein 
pounds 

1.4 

O.28 



Energy value 
therms 

12.4 

2.48 

14.88 



Requirement 1,200 1.68 

We must aim to allow a limited amount of roughage to a 
horse because this class of animal is not capable of consuming 
large amounts of this kind of feed stuff. The following ration 
approximates the requirement. 



12 pounds timothy hay 

7 pounds oats 

4 pounds corn • . 

5^ pounds wheat bran . 



Ration 

Requirement 



Dry matter 
pounds 



IO.416 
6.230 

3-564 
4-8455 

25-0555 



Digestible 
protein 
pounds 



O.2460 
O.5852 
O.2716 
0.56I55 

I.66435 
1.68 



Energy 
value 
therms 



4.0272 
4.6389 
3-5536 
2.65265 

I4-87235 
14.88 



Rations for Fattening Cattle. — In computing rations for fatten- 
ing cattle the maintenance requirement should be added to the 
average gain in live weight per day. Example : A farmer has 
a bunch of cattle weighing 1,000 lbs. which he wishes to fatten 
for the market. These cattle should make an average gain of 
2 lbs. a day and weigh about 1,500 lbs. when ready for sale. 

According to Table V, 1 pound gain in live weight for fattening 
cattle requires 3.5 therms of energy value. The cattle gain 2 lbs. 
a day, hence (2 X 3.5) = 7 therms, or the requirement of energy 
value. The maintenance should be calculated on the average live 
weight of the cattle for the period, namely 1,250 lbs. 



COMPUTATION OF RATIONS 1 87 

Digestible Energy 
protein value 

pounds therms 

Maintenance for 1 ,250 pounds 0.60 7.00 

Fattening requirement for 2 pounds, gain — 7.00 

Total requirement 0.60 14.00 

The digestible protein requirement is not given for 1 pound 
gain live weight, so that in computing a ration of this nature it 
will be necessary to balance the energy value. The digestible 
protein will then be much higher than is included in the require- 
ment, but if the energy value is balanced by the employment of 
the proper amounts of roughage and concentrates the digestible 
protein will be near enough for good results. 

Suggestion : Require the class to compute a ration for a flock 
of sheep averaging 135 lbs. live weight and 16 months of age, 
from potatoes, gluten feed, corn, clover hay and oat straw, accord- 
ing to energy values. 



SECTION XXIX. 



FEED AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS. 

Requirements. — The ration for a dairy cow should supply the 
proper amounts of nutrients for good milk production and for 
the needs of the animal body. It should be palatable and adapt- 
able. The ration should be as cheap as possible and should not 
contain enough feed to disturb the digestive equilibrium of the 
animal. 

Amount of Feed. — As already stated the amount of nutrients 
should be controlled by the quantity of milk produced, and its 
butter fat content. A cow producing 15 lbs. of milk should not 
receive as much digestible feed as one giving 25 lbs. of milk, and 
of two cows producing equal quantities of milk, the one produc- 
ing the higher fat content should receive the more non-nitrogen- 
ous food. 

The dairy cow when producing a good flow of milk is a hard 
working animal. Hence the larger the yield of milk the greater 
should be the proportion of concentrates to roughage. A dry 
cow is a lightly worked animal and a suitable ration may con- 
sist of much less grain and more roughage than for a cow in 
milk. A pregnant cow needs nitrogenous food to support the 
calf in utero and a suitable ration may be furnished with some 
well cured leguminous hay and carbohydrate roughage as corn 
stover, good grass hay, or straw. When the roughage is inferior, 
grain should be supplied in small amounts. A ration for a dairy 
cow should be made up of more than two feeds as an animal 
does better and enjoys variety just as people do. 

Cows usually prefer their feed in a dry condition and by supply- 
ing the feed in this way, the mangers are easily kept clean. The 
general practice is to feed dairy cows in the morning and late 
afternoon, with a little roughage, such as hay, at noon time. The 
cows should be fed and milked regularly. With some cows 
(usually fresh young cows) uniformity in the milking time is 
necessary for the best returns. 

Conditions Which Influence the Ration. — The size of the cow, 
the milk produced and the market price of the milk will necessari- 



FEED AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS 189 

ly influence the amount of grain that should be fed per day. For 
cows weighing 800 lbs. producing 20 to 22 lbs. of milk testing 5 
per cent fat, 7 to 8 lbs. of grain should suffice. When the price 
of grain is high it is sometimes economical to reduce the grain 
portion of the ration to 5 to 6 lbs. When the grain is reduced 
the feeds grown on the farm may be fed to advantage. Cows 
weighing 1,100 to 1,200 lbs. should receive sometimes as high 
as 11 to 12 lbs. of grain, depending upon their ability to con- 
sume it to good advantage. Whenever heavy feeds such as corn 
meal, middlings, etc. form a part of the ration, bulky feeds such 
as wheat bran, dried brewers' grains, corn and cob meal, etc. 
should be included. 

Some of the most important feeds suitable for dairy cows will 
be considered. 

Corn (Grain). — This grain is used very extensively in Ameri- 
can dairy rations because it may be successfully grown in most 
all sections of the United States. It is relished by cattle. It is 
relatively high in carbohydrates and when supplemented with 
another feed to complete the ration, the latter must necessarily 
supply roughage and be nitrogenous in character. When whole 
corn grain is fed some of it passes through the animal undigested 
and for this reason it is well to grind it and feed it as corn meal. 

Corn and Cob Meal, when ground fine, is very satisfactory for 
dairy cattle. When the expense of grinding is not too great it 
may be used profitably. It is practically equal to corn meal in 
feeding value for dairy cows because of its bulkiness and loose- 
ness, which permits of its being readily acted upon by the di- 
gestive juices. 

Ground Corn, Cob and Shuck Meal is also a good dairy feed. 
By grinding the corn with the husk, the expense of shucking is 
eliminated. 

Corn By-Products. — Corn bran, corn germ meal, gluten feed, 
gluten meal, grano-gluten and hominy meal are used a great deal 
by feeders of dairy cattle. Gluten feed and gluten meal are very 
popular with the eastern feeders as a source of protein. 

Wheat and Its By-Products. — Ground wheat may sometimes be 
fed when the price is not too high. It is of equal feeding value 



IQO ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 

to corn meal and should be mixed with other grain in forming" 
a ration, because it is sticky when masticated. The by-products 
are superior to ground wheat for dairy cows. 

Wheat bran, wheat middlings or shorts and red dog flour are 
the wheat by-products fed in dairy rations. Wheat bran is es- 
pecially desirable. This feed runs high enough in fiber to give 
bulk and it contains a high ash content and a fair protein percent- 
age for a concentrate. Wheat bran is used in more dairy rations 
perhaps than any other concentrate. With heavy corn meal it 
makes a good combination as corn is rather deficient in ash and 
fiber. Bran seems to aid digestion, has a cooling effect, and is a 
mild laxative. It is one of the best feeds for dairy cows just after 
calving, because at that time the cow is generally constipated 
and feverish. 

Middlings are much heavier than bran so they are not as good 
a complement for corn meal as bran. Middlings are more suit- 
able than bran for animals of small capacity. 

Six to eight pounds of bran and from four to six pounds of 
middlings may be fed daily to dairy cows. Dark feeding flour 
(red dog) is excellent dairy feed when the price is within the 
limit of the feeder. It is a heavy feed and therefore should be 
accompanied with some light concentrate. 

Barley. — Ground barley may be fed profitably to dairy cows ; 
at the rate of 3 to 5 lbs., in certain sections when the price is 
low. Barley should always be ground. It has about the same 
feeding- value as corn. It is often fed with oats. It contains 
more digestible protein than corn and less than oats. Wheat 
bran, or roots, or oats, should accompany barley as this latter feed 
counteracts the laxative effect of these feeds. 

Buckwheat By-Products. — Buckwheat bran and middlings are 
satisfactory milk producing feeds. 

Rice Meal, pure rice bran, may be fed to dairy cows when the 
market value is not too high. Four pounds of this feed a clay 
are sufficient. 

Rye Meal should be fed in conjunction with ground oats, wheat 
bran, corn meal, etc., and should never be supplied in quan- 
tities of more than 3 pounds a day. An excess of this feed 



FEED AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS 191 

affects the quality of butter and for this reason it is custo- 
mary to feed less than 3 pounds a day. 

Oats. — Ground oats make excellent feed for cows in milk. The 
selling price regulates the extent of its use in dairy feeding. 
It may form the whole grain part of the ration and when 
mixed with corn meal, wheat bran, ground barley or rye meal, 
an excellent ration may be completed with hay and stover. 
Oats is easily digested and bulky and may be fed economi- 
cally when the price is slightly higher than corn. 

Pea Meal and ground oats when mixed together offer a suitable 
feed. About ]/z pea meal together with % oats or bran is 
an ideal feed. This concentrate is fed in far northern sec- 
tions with good success 

Vegetable Oil By-Products. — Linseed meal, cotton-seed meal 
and cotton-seed hulls are used considerably for dairy herds. 
Cotton-seed is sometimes fed but at the present prices it is 
more advisable to sell it to the oil mills. It is a good feed. 
Linseed meal and cotton-seed meal are both used to furnish 
protein in rations. A study of Table I shows these feeds to 
contain high protein contents. Practical feeders advise that 
not over 4 pounds of cotton-seed meal be furnished per day 
and that some other grain accompany it in a ration. 

Linseed meal is very popular in the foreign countries where 
it is used a great deal for feeding. This foreign demand has 
caused the employment of this feed to be too expensive for 
supplying the protein of dairy rations in some sections. Three 
to four pounds of this concentrate give excellent results with 
dairy cows. 

Cotton-seed hulls, which are very light and bulky, furnish 
excellent roughage in dairy rations. Too much hulls are not 
desirable and 12 to 14 pounds a day are enough. The price of 
this feed must be considered by the feeder. There is a great 
variation in the composition of this feed, depending on the 
amount of broken kernels present. They are generally fed near 
the oil mills. 

Alcoholic By-Products. — Malt sprouts, dried brewers' grains, 
and dried distillers' grains are protein concentrates of value for 



192 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

dairy cattle. About 25 pounds of wet brewers' grains may be 
fed successfully at points near the breweries. Their large water 
content and liability to ferment prohibit transportation and stor- 
age. Malt sprouts, dried brewers' grains and dried distillers' 
grains are used to supply protein and may make up 2 to 5 
pounds of a day's ration. 

The Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, Bui. 94 
says, "After taking into consideration the digestible nutrients 
contained in the several by-products (alcoholic), the mechanical 
condition and palatability, together with the results of different 
trials with dairy animals, the following general statements may 
be made with regard to the relative value of the several feed 
stuffs. 

"1. Distillers' dried grains with 32 per cent, or more protein 
are fully equal if not rather superior to gluten feed in feeding 
value. 

"2. Distillers' grains and gluten feed are worth fully one-half 
as much again as wheat bran. 

"3. Brewers' dried grains and malt sprouts do not vary great- 
ly in feeding value ; the former will generally be given prefer- 
ence. 

"4. Brewers' grains and malt sprouts are rather superior in 
feeding value to wheat bran, probably 10 per cent." 

Sugar By-Products. — Cane, beet and sorghum molasses and 
beet pulp are used in feeding dairy cows. Cane molasses is 
especially palatable and digestible and 4 to 5 pounds a day may 
be fed with good results to furnish carbohydrate concentrate. 
Beet molasses is not so palatable as cane molasses but may be 
used to the extent of 2 pounds mixed with other feed per day. 
Sorghum molasses is used in mixed feeds and may be fed in 
sections where available at the rate of 2 to 4 pounds a day. 
Molasses is a good tonic and conditioner and may often be used 
to advantage in disposing of unpalatable roughage. The wet 
beet pulp may be fed in close proximity to the sugar factory, 
but it will not stand storing and becomes too expensive when 
transported. The New York (Geneva) Experiment Station es- 
timates that pound for pound, the dry matter of beet pulp is 



EEED AND CARE OE DAIRY COWS 193 

equal to that of corn silage, or approximately, 2 tons of wet beet 
pulp equal i ton of corn silage. Wet beet pulp seems to give 
results far above what its chemical composition shows. In other 
words it has a beneficial physiological effect for milk production. 
The Colorado Experiment Station recommends 50 pounds as a 
maximum 1 in daily rations. In their investigations the following 
ration was used : 

24 pounds wet beet pulp 
20 pounds alfalfa 

4 pounds corn chops 

4 pounds wheat chops. 

Dried beet pulp seems to be more suitable for fattening animals 
than for dairy cows. 

Corn Fodder and Stalks. — Corn stover, the whole corn plant, 
corn leaves, etc., furnish desirable feed that may be used to 
make up part of the ration for milch cows. On account of the 
wide distribution of the corn plant, this roughage is found in 
dairy rations of many sections. These feeds are comparatively 
high in carbohydrates so that leguminous hays are excellent to 
complete the roughage portion of rations containing any of 
them. 

Grass Hays. — Timothy, Kentucky blue grass, meadow fescue, 
red top, Hungarian grass and other millets, orchard grass, 
prairie grasses, tall oat grass, Bermuda, crab, Canadian blue 
grass, Italian rye grass, rescue grass, teosinte, velvet grass, 
Russian broom, Western rye grass, Texas blue grass, oat, etc., 
are fed as roughage to dairy cattle. These furnish relatively 
large proportions of carbohydrates and when fed should be 
accompanied with grains rich in protein to form a balanced 
ration. 

Timothy hay commands such a high market price that it is 
only occasionally that the feeder can economically use it. It is 
usually more profitable to sell this hay as the market price is 
generally far above its feeding value for. dairy cows. Oats and 
vetch, oats and peas, wheat and vetch, oats, peas and vetch and 
similar combinations are grown and furnish good roughage for 
cows in milk. 



194 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 

Great care should be exercised in harvesting grasses. They 
should be cut before they become too woody and lose color. In 
curing, the green color and aroma should be maintained as much 
as possible. 

Straws. — The straws from rye, barley, buckwheat, wheat, oats 
and rice are sometimes used in furnishing part of the roughage 
of dairy rations. Oat straw when bright, may be used to 
advantage. Many feeders use a small amount of oat straw to 
furnish a part of the roughage. As a general rule straws are, 
too woody and stiff to be used to any considerable extent for 
feeding dairy cows in milk. 

Legumes. — Alfalfa, clovers, Canada field pea, cowpea, soy 
bean and peanut vine are the principal leguminous plants used 
in dairy rations. Alfalfa and the clovers are par excellence for 
supplying roughage. Cowpea, peanut vine, soy bean and Japan 
clover (lespedeza) are fed in the South where they are easily 
grown. All the legumes are nitrogenous and make excellent 
roughage for carbohydrate concentrates. Clover hay is fed more 
in dairy rations than any other leguminous hay. It is greatly 
relished by dairy cattle. 

Legumes should be harvested before they are mature to have 
the best feeding value. They are usually highest in feeding 
value just when in blossom. Great care should be taken in 
curing these natural feeds as the shattering of the leaves and 
other fine parts, results in large losses of protein. Rain and dew 
also injure these feeds. 

Methods of Curing. — There are different methods employed in 
the successful curing of these crops. Some farmers cut this 
class of forage late in the afternoon so that very little wilting 
takes place before the dew falls. The next day the hay is cured 
as rapidly as possible and stored away before night. Another 
system requires that the forage be cut in the morning just after 
the dew has dried off. It should not be disturbed until after- 
noon when it is cocked before the dew falls. The cocks should 
be covered with caps to prevent rain injury, and allowed to 
stand until the sweating process is over. The cocks are then 



FEED AND CARE OF DAIRY COWS 195 

opened up and allowed to dry a short while until the water 
passes off and stored away before the dew falls. 

Silage. — This is one of the best fodders for dairy cows. It 
furnishes succulent feed that exerts a beneficial physiological 
effect which tends to increase milk production. In winter it is 
very acceptable when green feeds are not to be had. It is vari- 
able in composition depending upon the nature of the crop or 
crops used, the condition of growth, and with corn the maturity 
of the ears. When corn is harvested at too early a stage it con- 
tains a great deal of water which tends to produce the so-called 
sour silage. Sweet silage is obtained from the more mature 
corn and may be fed in larger quantities than sour silage. As 
high as 50 pounds per day are sometimes fed but 30 to 40 pounds 
are usually sufficient. Some dry roughage as leguminous hay 
should be fed with it. 

Corn and Legumes Make Valuable Silage. — The following from 
Bui. 101, Illinois Experiment Station is valuable data relative 
to silage. "Corn not only produces a large quantity of nutritious 
feed that is easily placed in the silo, but it is of such a nature 
as to pack readily and keep well. The large southern varieties 
of ensilage corn, which give enormous yields in tons per acre, 
have been recommended for silage ; but such varieties do not 
produce much grain and the total nutrients are usually less than 
from ordinary field corn. The best results are obtained with 
some variety that will give a good yield of grain, and by plant- 
ing somewhat thicker than for a grain crop. Under average 
conditions a larger tonnage of feed can usually be obtained per 
acre by combining corn, sorghum and cowpeas or soy beans, but 
even with this combination the greater part of the crop should 
be corn. When either peas or beans are grown with corn and 
the entire crop is put into the silo, the feeding value is greater, 
ton for ton, than that of corn alone. This is a much more 
economical method of obtaining protein than by purchasing it 
in high priced concentrates, as gluten feed, cotton-seed meal, 
linseed meal, etc. 



I96 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Harvesting Corn and Cowpeas.— "If cowpeas are planted at the 
same time as the corn and in the rows with it, they will usually 
make a fair growth. Since the vines will run up the corn 
stalks, the entire crop can be cut with the binder the same as 
corn alone, making- practically no extra work in filling the silo. 
The only difficulty in harvesting corn and cowpeas with the 
corn binder is that, if the corn is missing for a rod in the row, 







^ 



$1*1 m 



Fig. 14.— Corn and cowpeas. 

there is nothing to carry the peas back into the binder and it is 
likely to clog. Where there is a fairly uniform stand of corn, 
all can be readily bound together. As the stalks of soy beans 
are much stiffer than those of cowpeas, no difficulty is experi- 
enced in cutting them with corn." 



Weight of Silage. — The following table gives the weight of 
corn silage at different depths two days after filling. 1 

1 Bui 59, Wisconsin Exp. Station. 



FEED AND CARE OE DAIRY COWS 



I97 







*0*j" 




j. 


04; 




bo£ 


oj; 




« ft 






rt ft 






rt 0. 






._, <u 


A 3 




S D 


* 3 ,. 




TZ v 


*3, 


(J 




c g 


&3.g 

S U ft 

a bo 


O u 

r- &■*-• 
•3 XT f 




WO J£ 
O 3 S 
J5 l-i 


rt bo 


a 

ft=^ 

V in 



OS g 

■w « 5 

r- 1- O 
* i> ft 

.2fte 


boo JJ 
— "O 

Sft 5 

3 <U Q. 

rt bo 




K 






S2 






•>;-. 

^ 


H> rt 




n3 






a! 











I 


18.7 


18.7 


13 


37-3 


28.3 


25 


51-7 


365 


2 


20.4 


19.6 


14 


38.7 


29.1 


26 


52.7 


37-2 


3 


22.1 


20.6 


15 


40.0 


29.8 


27 


53-6 


37-8 


4 


23-7 


21.2 


16 


41-3 


30.5 


28 


54-6 


38.4 


5 


25-4 


22.1 


17 


42.6 


31.2 


29 


55-5 


39-o 


6 


27.0 


22.9 


18 


43-8 


3i-9 


3° 


56.4 


39-6 


7 


28.5 


23.8 


19 


45 -o 


32.6 


3 1 


57-2 


40.1 


8 


30.1 


24-5 


20 


46.2 


33-3 


32 


58.0 


40.7 


9 


31.6 


25-3 


21 


47-4 


33-9 


33 


58.8 


41.2 


10 


33-i 


26.1 


22 


48.5 


34-6 


34 


596 


41.8 


11 


34-5 


26.8 


23 


49.6 


35-3 


35 


60.3 


42.3 


12 


35-9 


27.6 


24 


50.6 


35 9 


36 


61.0 


42.8 



According to King: 1 "The weight of corn silage increases 
with the depth below the surface, with the amount of water in 
the silage, and with the diameter of the silo. In silos of small 
diameters the amount of surface in the wall is so much greater 
in proportion to the silage contained that the friction on the 
sides has more influence in preventing the settling of the silage. 



"Capacity of Silos. — The capacities of silos increase more rap- 
idly than do their depths, so much that a silo 36 feet deep will 
contain nearly five times as much silage as one only one- 
third that depth; and when it is remembered that there is less 
necessary loss with deep silage the importance of depth will be 
appreciated. 

"Doubling the diameter of the silo increases its capacity a 
little more than four times, while trebling its diameter increases 
its capacity nine-fold. It is evident, therefore, that the cost of 
storage decreases rapidly with increase in the size of the silo." 

The following tables give the approximate capacities of round 
silos in tons of corn silage. 

1 Bui. 59, Wisconsin Exp. Station. 



I98 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



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EEED AND CARE OE DAIRY COWS 



TABLE B. 1 
(The diameter is shown at the top of the columns and depth at the left. ) 



3S 




Inside diameter of silo in feet and the capacity in tons (2,000 lbs.). 




X O 


10 ft. 


lift, 
tons 


12 ft. 


13 ft. 


14 ft. 


15 ft. 


16 ft. 


17 ft. 


18 ft. 


19 ft. 


20 ft. 


feet 


tons 


tons 


tons 


tons 


tons 


tons 


tons 


tons 


tons 


tons 


20 


26 






















21 


28 






















22 


30 


36 




















23 


32 


39 




















24 


34 


4i 


49 


















25 


36 


43 


52 


















26 


38 


46 


55 


64 
















27 


40 


49 


58 


68 
















28 


42 


5i 


61 


7i 


83 














29 


44 


54 


64 


75 


87 














30 


47 


56 


67 


79 


91 


I05 












31 


49 


59 


70 


83 


96 


no 












32 


5i 


62 


74 


86 


IOO 


115 


131 










33 


53 


65 


77 


90 


I05 


121 


138 










34 


56 


68 


80 


94 


109 


126 


143 


162 








35 


58 


70 


84 


98 


114 


132 


149 


169 








36 


61 


73 


87 


102 


Il8 


136 


155 


176 


196 






37 


63 


76 


90 


106 


123 


142 


l6l 


183 


204 






.38 


66 


79 


94 


no 


128 


148 


167 


191 


212 


237 




39 


68 


82 


97 


115 


133 


154 


174 


198 


221 


247 




40 


70 


85 


101 


119 


138 


l6o 


180 


205 


229 


256 


280 



The Horizontal Feeding Area. — Silage must be removed from 
the top and not sliced or cut down vertically as is often practiced 
in feeding hay from the mow or stack, because the entrance of 
air will rapidly spoil it. It is considered that at least 1.2 inches 
should be removed per day from the top to prevent molding. 
Two inches of corn silage weigh 5 lbs. per square foot at the 
top and 10 lbs. at the bottom, or an average of 7.5 lbs. for the 
silo. The daily requirement for a cow, at this rate, would be 
about 5 square feet surface area. The feeding area should not 
be so large that enough cannot be fed per day to prevent 
deterioration. 



1 Bui. 21, Concrete Review. 



200 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



The table 1 which follows gives the diameters and depths of 
silos of two types which hold enough silage for 180 days, feeding 
2 or 3.2 inches a day, allowing each cow 40 lbs. 





Silo 30 ft. deep without partition 


Silo 24 ft. deep without partition 


No. of 
cows 


Contents 


Round 
diam. 
in feet 


Square 

sides 

in 

feet 


Mean 
depth 

fed 
daily 
inches 


Contents 


Round 
diam. 
in feet 


Square 

sides in 

feet 


Mean 
depth 




tons 


cu. ft. 


tons 


cu. ft. 


fed 
daily 
inches 


30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 

100 


108 
144 
180 
2l6 
252 
288 

324 
360 


4091 

6545 

8182 

9818 

1 1454 

1 309 1 

14727 
16364 


15- 

16.75 

18.75 

20.5 

22. 

23-5 

25- 

26.5 


12x14 
14x16 
16x18 
18x18 
20X20 
20X22 
22x24 
24x24 


2 
2 
2 
2 

2 
2 

2 
2 


108 
144 
180 
2l6 
252 
288 

324 
360 


55IO 

7347 

9184 

1 1020 

12857 

1 469 1 

1653 1 
18367 


17. 
20. 
22. 
24. 
26. 
28. 

29-75 

31-25 


16x16 
18x18 
20x20 

22X22 
22X26 
24X26 
26x28 
28X28 


3-2 
3-2 
3-2 

3-2 

3-2 
3-2 

3-2 

32 



This table 2 gives the number of cows in herd and tonnage of 
silage for both 180 and 240 days of feeding of 40 pounds of sil- 
age per cow, also acreage of corn estimated to fill the silo and 
the dimensions of the silo itself. The diameters given are such 
that at least 2 inches in depth of silage will be taken off daily. 



Number of cows 
in herd 



IO. 
12. 

15- 
20. 

2 5- 

30- 
35- 
40. 

45- 
5o- 
60. 
70. 



Feed for 180 days 



W> 

u' m £ 

rt o m 

«a 



36 

43 

54 

72 

90 

108 

126 

144 

162 

180 

216 

252 



Size of silo 



feet 

10 
10 
II 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
l6 

17 
18 

19 



feet 

25 
28 
29 
32 
33 
34 
34 
35 
37 
37 
39 
40 



V n u 

be- y 

ra a a 

£•00 
on 



Feed for 240 days 



4 
5 
6 

sy 2 

10 

11 

12 

14^ 

17 



5 ^-o 

H <U 5 



tons 

48 

57 

72 

96 

120 

144 

168 

192 

216 

240 

288 

336 



Size of Silo 



feet 

IO 
IO 
II 
12 
13 
15 
16 

17 
18 

19 
20 



feet 

31 
35 
36 
39 

40 

37 
38 
39 
39 
39 
40 



4 

5 

(>% 

8 
10 
11 
13 

u l A 
16 

19 



1 Bui. 59, Wisconsin Exp. Station. 

2 Bui. 21, Concrete Review. 



FEED AND CARE OE DAIRY COWS 



201 



Roots and Tubers. — Carrots, beets, sweet potatoes, Irish pota- 
toes, turnips, rutabagas, etc., are feeds that exert a beneficial 
effect on dairy cows. Irish and sweet potatoes usually com- 
mand too high a price to warrant using them as feed. How- 
ever, when the market price is low it sometimes pays to feed 
them. Beet (mangel) sugar-beet, rutabagas, carrots, and tur- 
nips are often fed with profit. These feeds increase milk pro- 




>'^" : >v •' *'JJ 



Fig. 15. — Roots (mangels), a good succulent feed. 

duction far above what would be expected from their chemical 
composition. In northern sections where corn is easily grown 
it is perhaps more economical to make silage than to grow roots 
for feeding. The Nebraska Experiment Station found sugar 
beets to have about the same feeding value as corn silage. The 
Colorado Experiment Station found that one ton of beets is 
equivalent to two tons of beet pulp. A great deal more dry 
matter may be produced on the same area by growing corn, 
14 



202 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

than roots. In southern localities roots may be grown in the 
winter when land is often idle, and harvested in time to plant 
corn and other summer crops. Roots should be sliced before 
feeding. They seem to exert a cooling effect on animals. The 
mangel is probably the most profitable root crop to feed. 

Pasturage. — When dairy cows are receiving plenty of green 
pasture grass, the production of milk generally increases and 
under such conditions it is not necessary to feed any roughage. 
Sometimes a small amount of grain (2 lbs.) fed occasionally 
at the afternoon feeding is beneficial. If the pasturage is scant 
the cows will require sufficient feed to supplement it. 

Soiling. — Some farms have not the acreage to support the 
number of cows the dairyman wishes to keep by pasturing. 
On other farms the pastures become poor at certain times. On 
such farms green crops are cut and fed fresh to the animals. 
There is a great deal of labor involved in handling green crops 
in this way and for this reason soiling is not popular in some 
sections. In furnishing green crops to cows, the dairyman must 
arrange so that green feed may be furnished continuously. Oats, 
rye, alfalfa, clovers, oats and peas, sorghum, corn, etc., are 
popular soiling crops. 

Salt. — This should be allowed the cows regularly. If the 
cows are on pasture a sheltered box containing rock salt or 
pulverized salt is helpful. Some feeders mix a little pulverized 
salt or common salt in the feed, but care must be taken not to 
add too much and make the feed unpalatable. About % to 1 
ounce of salt a day should be given regularly. 

Water. — A good artesian well or other pure water should be 
supplied the animals at a place near or in the barn, so that the 
cows will not be forced to go a long distance in severe weather. 
They should be allowed all they wish as milk requires a great 
deal of water for a good production. If the water is not at the 
animals' disposal it should be supplied regularly two or three 
times a day. If a trough or other vessel is used, the feeder 
should make sure that it is kept clean. 

Shelter. — In the summer, flies annoy the cows and effect milk 
production. Some dairymen keep their cows in dark, cool places 



EEED AND CARE OE DAIRY COWS 203 

during the day and pasture them at night, feeding green crops 
during the day. All pastures should have some trees to furnish 
shade during the hot days. 

Exercise. — In the cold winters cows should get several hours 
of exercise daily, to keep up milk production. Often it is too dis- 
agreeable to exercise the cows outside, and a change to some 
roomy, well ventilated, covered enclosure, which is bedded with 
straw and horse manure and sprinkled with some material such 
as land plaster, makes a desirable place for the animals to rest 
and exercise. 

Kindness. — The dairy cow is generally a nervous animal and 
should always be treated gently for best results. Dairy cattle 
like people do not enjoy harsh and abusive treatment. To keep 
up a good flow of milk the cows should be quiet and contented 
and any treatment that tends to make them nervous, results in 
lessening milk production. 

Rations for Dairy Cows. — In the Wisconsin Experiment Sta- 
tion Bui. 38, Woll gives statistics on ioo American dairy ra- 
tions. Some of the data from this bulletin is given for the 
student because it represents actual practice of some of the 
leading American dairymen. 

In all, 2,921 cows in milk were represented as receiving these 
rations. A few of these rations may prove of interest. 

Colorado — 20 lbs. alfalfa hay, 10 lbs. corn fodder, 3 lbs. cot- 
ton-seed meal, 4 lbs. corn meal, 13 lbs. bran, 35 lbs. mangolds. 

Connecticut — 35 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. hay, 3 lbs. bran, 3 
lbs. corn and cob meal, 2 lbs. Chicago gluten meal, 2 lbs. cotton- 
seed meal. 

Illinois — 7^2 lbs. clover hay, 7^ lbs. timothy hay, 12 lbs. corn 
and cob meal, 8 lbs. bran, i}4 lbs. linseed meal, 1% lbs. cotton- 
seed meal. 

Indiana — 30 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. clover hay, 3 lbs. corn fod- 
der, 1 lb. oat straw, 1 lb. wheat straw, 5 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. oil 
meal, 2 lbs. cotton-seed meal. 

Iowa — 50 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. hay, 5 lbs. corn fodder, 1 lb. 
oat straw, 1 lb. barley straw, 5 lbs. ear corn, 2,y 2 lbs. ground oats 
and barley. 



204 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Kansas — 50 lbs. sorghum fodder, 7^ lbs. hay, 3.2 lbs. bran, 
3.2 lbs. corn meal, 1^2 lbs. oil meal. 

Kentucky — 32.5 lbs. corn silage, 6 lbs. clover hay, 3 lbs. corn 
fodder, 5 lbs. corn meal, 4 lbs. shipstuff, 2 lbs. oil meal. 

Louisiana 1 — 11 lbs. lespedeza hay, 3.5 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 
13.5 lbs. cotton-seed hulls, 4.5 lbs. corn meal. 

Massachusetts — 40 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. English hay, 5 lbs. 
clover hay, 2 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. gluten meal, 1 lb. cotton-seed meal, 
1 lb. linseed meal. 

Michigan — 2jy 2 lbs. corn silage, 3^2 lbs. clover hay, 3^ lbs. 
timothy hay, 3.6 lbs. bran, x / 2 lb. oats, 1 lb. rye, ]/ 2 lb. linseed 
meal. 

Minnesota — 8 lbs. corn fodder, 7 lbs. clover and timothy hay, 

5 lbs. sheaf oats, 3 lbs. rutabagas, 2 lbs. bran, 3 lbs. oats, 3 lbs. 
corn meal, 2 lbs. oil cake. 

Nebraska — 20 lbs. prairie hay, 10 lbs. corn fodder, 5.7 lbs. 
corn meal, 2.9 lbs. bran, 1.4 lbs. oil meal. 

New Hampshire — 11.7 lbs. clover and witch grass hay, 3.3 lbs. 
oat straw, 10 lbs. meadow hay, 2 lbs. shorts, 2 lbs. corn and cob 
meal, 1 lb. ground pease, 1 lb. oats, 1 lb. barley 

New Jersey — 24 lbs. corn silage, 4 lbs. corn meal, 2 lbs. bran, 

6 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. oil meal. 

New York — 9 lbs. clover hay, 9 lbs. timothy hay, 5 lbs. corn 
fodder, 5 lbs. oat and pea straw, I lb. oats, 1 lb. buckwheat mid- 
dlings, 1 lb. corn, 1 lb. rye bran, 1 lb. wheat bran, 1.6 lbs. cotton- 
seed meal. 

North Carolina — 30 lbs. corn silage, 8 lbs. fodder corn, 3 lbs. 
corn meal, 3 lbs. bran, 1 lb. cotton-seed meal. 

Ohio — 10 lbs. clover hay, 20 lbs. corn stalks, 8 lbs. corn meal, 
3 lbs. corn and cob meal, 1 lb. bran, 8 lbs. roots. 

Pennsylvania — 10 lbs. clover hay, 5 lbs. timothy hay, 2 l / 2 lbs. 
corn fodder, 6 l / 2 lbs. corn meal, 2 lbs. oats, 3.2 lbs. bran, i 1 /? 
lbs. oil meal, 15 lbs. carrots. 

Texas — 30 lbs. corn silage, iy/ 2 lbs. sorghum hay, 1.3 lbs. 
corn meal, 2.6 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2.2 lbs. cotton-seed, 1.3 lbs. 
wheat bran. 

1 Not included in average, supplied by the writer. 



FEED AND CARE OE DAIRY COWS 



20 = 



Utah — 35 lbs. alfalfa hay, 6 2 /z lbs. wheat bran, y/ 3 lbs. barley. 

Vermont — 35 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. mixed hay, 2 lbs. bran, 
3.2 lbs. corn meal, 1 lb. linseed meal, 0.8 lb. cotton-seed meal. 

West Virginia — 48 lbs. corn silage, 2.y 2 lbs. corn and cob 
meal, 2.y 2 lbs. ground wheat, 2.y 2 lbs. oats, 2.y 2 lbs. barley 
meal. 

Washington — 15 lbs. alfalfa hay, 7 lbs. bran, 7 lbs. shorts, 2 
lbs. malt sprouts. 

Wisconsin — 22 lbs. corn silage, 4 lbs. clover hay, 4 lbs. timothy 
hay, 2 lbs. oat straw, 2 lbs. corn stalks, 6 lbs. wheat screenings, 
2 lbs. malt sprouts, 2 lbs. oil meal, 1 lb. wheat bran. 

Canada — 30 lbs. corn silage, 7^ lbs. hay, 6y> lbs. straw, 25 
lbs. turnips, 1.3 lbs. pea meal, 2.5 lbs. oats, 1.3 lbs. barley. 

In the 100 rations were included 3 succulent feeds, 18 coarse 
dry fodders, 27 concentrates, 6 kinds of roots and tubers, and 1 
miscellaneous (skim milk). Of these 55 feeds several were used 
in many rations. The list that follows shows the number of 
times the most popular feeds were employed. 



Wheat bran 73 

Corn silage 64 

Mixed hay 42 

Corn meal 42 

Clover hay 40 

Linseed meal 37 

Cotton-seed meal 35 

Oats 35 

Corn fodder and stalks . • . • 35 
Timothy hay 21 



Oat straw 16 

Corn and cob meal 14 

Barley 13 

Roots 13 

"Wheat shorts 13 

Wheat middlings 11 

Gluten meal 8 

Pea meal 6 

Wheat 3 

Malt sprouts 3 



Nutrients in the 100 Rations in Pounds 



New England States • • • 

Middle States 

Central States 

North Central States • • • 

Southern States 

Rocky Mountain States. 

Pacific States 

Canada 



No. of 
rations 



II 

31 

20 

21 

2 

5 
I 

9 



Dry 

matter 



24.28 
24.65 
22.97 

25-79 
23.48 
30.81 
21.60 
21-57 



Digestible matter 



Protein Carbohy Fat 



2.IO 
2.27 
I.97 
2.08 
2.00 
3.12 
2.68 
1.76 



13-19 
13.68 
12.78 

13-79 
12.14 

15-39 
10.54 
11.69 



o.75 
0.82 
0.72 
0.68 
1.05 
0.79 

o.55 
0.63 



Nutritive 
ratio 



1:7.1 
1:6.8 
17-3 
i:7-3 
1:7.2 

i:5-5 

1:44 

17.4 



206 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND EEEDING 



Alfalfa was the principle roughage used in the western ra- 
tions which accounts for the narrow nutritive ratio. 

Dr. Woll gives the average nutritive ratio for 128 herds from 
the different sections of the United States and Canada as: 

American Standard Ration for Dairy Cows. 



Average for 


Dry matter 
pounds 


Digestible 
protein 
pounds 


Digestible 
carbohy- 
drates 
pounds 


Digestible 

fat 

pounds 


Nutritive 
ratio 




24-51 


2.15 


13.27 


0.74 


1:6.9 





As previously stated the width of a profitable dairy ration 
depends upon the cost of the feeds locally. In some sections 
wider or narrower rations than the above may be best for cer- 
tain conditions. The feeds that go to make up a ration are 
influenced by market prices of those that are available. Hence 
it is impossible to state the best ration for dairy cows. The 
nutritive ratio of most of the dairy rations fed in America is 
much wider than the Wolff standard given in Table II. From 
the foregoing data the student should experience little trouble 
in selecting feeds and compounding a ration suitable to the con- 
ditions of his home. 

Suggestion: — Is there any objection to feeding a ration to a 
milch cow composed of linseed meal, wheat bran, gluten feed 
and alfalfa hay? Require the students to make a list of the 
available feeds in the locality; their prices; and require them 
to compute the cheapest rations possible for milch cows. 

Have one of the students explain the construction of a silo, 
the way the crop is prepared for siloing and the appearance of 
the silage after it has been in the silo for some time. Examine 
some silage and allow the students to taste it. If there is a 
silo in the vicinity a trip to it may prove profitable. 



SECTION XXX. 



FEED AND CARE OF FATTENING CATTLE. 

Requirements. — We have learned that fattening animals re- 
quire enough protein to repair the wastes, and carbohydrates 
must be supplied to increase body weight. Hence the carbohy- 
drates should predominate in rations for fattening animals. 

The amount of protein required will depend upon the age of 
the animal. Mature animals require very little protein and a 
wide nutritive ratio is satisfactory for the laying on of fat. 
The width of the ration will be influenced by the available feeds 
and market values, and the cost per pound of increase in live 
weight. In some sections where alfalfa is cheap and abundant, 
a suitable ration would necessarily be narrower than one where 
carbohydrate roughage and grains are economical. The addition 
of protein from some nitrogenous concentrate as linseed meal, 
gluten feed, cotton-seed meal, etc., tends to increase the effi- 
ciency of fattening rations and makes them more palatable. 
Sometimes it is cheaper to supply most of the protein from some 
protein roughage. 

A fattening ration should not only be palatable but should be 
easily digestible, hence rough fodders are not suitable. A variety 
of materials should make up the ration. 

Cattle should average 2 lbs. gain in live weight per day dur- 
ing the fattening period. The gain of course depends upon the 
age of the animals. Experiments have shown that young ani- 
mals gain faster than those more mature. During the first part 
of the fattening period cattle gain more than at the latter part 
and the longer the fattening period the more feed is required 
to produce a given gain in weight. It is considered that 12 to 
13 lbs. of dry matter are required for 1 pound of gain. The 
animals should be allowed all the roughage they will eat. 

Corn is the best grain feed for fattening cattle. In this 
country it is used more than any other single grain for this 
purpose. Because of its high content of starch it is admirably 
suited for producing fat. 



208 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Snapped Corn. — This is the unhusked ear which is snapped or 
broken from the stalk. It is the most popular feed in the West 
and produces excellent results. Some feeders fatten their cat- 
tle on this feed alone, claiming that the husk and cob furnish 
sufficient roughage. Farmers who practice this method of feed- 
ing often leave the stalks in the field allowing the cattle to eat 
what they wish of them. It is better to harvest the stalks and 
use them as roughage, for there is a great deal of waste and 
loss of nutrients by allowing the stalks to remain in the field. 
Cattle fed snapped corn sometimes become troubled with sore 
mouths. In such cases the animal should be fed a mixture of 
corn and cob meal and wheat bran or some other easily masti- 
cated grain mixture until the soreness disappears. In feeding 
snapped corn the cattle should receive some leguminous rough- 
age such as clover, alfalfa, cowpea, soy bean, etc. 

Shocked Corn. — This is a very satisfactory feed for fattening 
cattle. The harvester cuts and ties the fodder corn into bundles 
and the corn is then put in shock at a small expense. It is 
well preserved for winter feeding by this procedure and the 
husk prevents the ear corn from becoming too hard for cattle 
to masticate. Shocked corn is more easily preserved than snapped 
corn because in storing the latter it is hard to keep up a free 
circulation of air. This shocked corn is placed in sheltered 
feed racks with enough space between the racks to permit the 
animal free use of the head. Sometimes the bundles are scat- 
tered over a field. The cattle eat some of the fodder in this 
method. Pigs should follow cattle to pick up the wastes and 
droppings as some of the corn kernels pass through the animal 
undigested. One pig to one steer is sufficient. This indirect 
method of selling corn is profitable. The cattle often pay for 
the corn and the profits are derived from selling the pigs. 

Protein is Desirable. — It is often profitable to limit the amount 
of shocked corn in a steer's ration and supplement it with corn 
and cob meal, shelled corn, and some protein concentrate as 
linseed meal, gluten feed, gluten meal, cotton-seed meal, etc. 
Sometimes wheat bran may be used instead of a protein con- 
centrate when the market value is low. When nitrogenous 



FEED AND CARE OF FATTENING CATTLE 209 

roughage as alfalfa, clover, etc., is profitable to feed, the nitrog- 
enous concentrates may be reduced. 

Husked Corn is sometimes fed. It is cheaper and more desira- 
ble to feed snapped or shocked corn than husked corn. Husked 
corn becomes exceedingly dry and hard and has the tendency to 
produce sore mouths and gums when fed in large quantities. 
It is often practical to crush corn to make it more easily masti- 
cated. 

Corn Meal seems to be favored by Eastern feeders. Larger 
gains are made with meal than with unground grain. Of 
course corn meal is a heavier feed than the whole ear and care 
must be exercised in its use. For Western and Southern feed- 
ers it is no doubt cheaper to feed the whole unground ear be- 
cause of the expense of grinding. 

Corn and Cob Meal. — Experiments have demonstrated that corn 
and cob meal is equal in feeding value to corn meal. This 
feed is more bulky than corn meal and hence it is easily at- 
tacked by the digestive fluids. 

Corn Stover is always a cheap roughage on the farm. It 
should supply at least one-half the roughage when available. 
Alfalfa or clover make excellent complements of stover to com- 
plete the roughage of a ration. It is often desirable to cut up 
the stover or shred it to insure a larger consumption. The cost 
of course will determine the practicability of such practice. 

Corn Silage. — When the farm is equipped with a silo it pays 
to allow the cattle about 10 to 15 lbs. a day during the pre- 
liminary and middle periods of fattening. Silage seems to 
help the cattle in the preliminary and middle periods of fatten- 
ing by supplying water and bulk, by increasing the appetite and 
by producing a cooling and laxative effect. It is perhaps un- 
profitable to construct a silo just for feeding fattening cattle. 

The Indiana Experiment Station produced good gains by 

feeding the following ration to fattening steers : 
2.5 pounds cotton-seed meal 
4.4 pounds clover hay 
14.4 pounds shelled corn 
27.7 pounds corn silage 

With silage the cost of gain was J / 2 cent a pound less than 



2IO ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

with dry feed and the increase in profits amounted to $3~$8 
per steer. The cotton-seed meal gave better results than oil 
meal and tended to produce a firmer flesh with silage. 

Wheat Bran. — When the market price permits, wheat bran 
may be utilized for giving bulk to a ration. It seems to pro- 
duce a slight laxative action and possess cooling properties 
which are desirable. When corn meal is fed, wheat bran is es- 
pecially valuable in the ration. 

Protein Concentrates. — Linseed meal, gluten feed, gluten meal, 
cotton-seed meal, etc., may often be used to advantage in fur- 
nishing protein to fattening animals. A little protein especially 
from linseed meal seems to give a finish to beef and often re- 
duces the fattening period. This is helpful on a declining market. 
Linseed meal or oil cake at the rate of 2 to 4 lbs. a day is ex- 
ceedingly beneficial for the finishing period. Cotton-seed and 
cotton-seed meal are good beef producing feeds. 3 to 4 lbs. of 
cotton-seed meal is sufficient per day. 

Roots are valuable in the preliminary period of fattening, but 
should not be fed during the finishing period, because they pro- 
duce soft flesh. 10 to 20 lbs. of roots per day are ample. Roots 
should always be sliced or pulped before feeding. In fatten- 
ing rations the feeds are generally heat producing and roots 
seem to exert a cooling effect which is beneficial. In the corn 
belt it is cheaper to feed silage because twice as much dry 
matter can be obtained from equal areas by growing corn than 
roots. The mangel is the best root crop for steers and it pro- 
duces a higher tonnage than the other roots. 

Beet pulp has been shown by experiments to be a good feed 
for fattening cattle. With alfalfa as an adjunct, in sections 
where alfalfa is cheap, beet pulp may be fed profitably for fat- 
tening cattle. 

Straw. — Flax straw, when flaxseed is present, may be used in 
fattening cattle. Oat straw is sometimes profitably utilized for 
supplying half the roughage. If hay is available it is perhaps 
better to feed the hay. Wheat straw has been found to be un- 
satisfactory because as much energy is expended in preparing it 



FEED AND CARE OF FATTENING CATTLE 211 

for digestion as is digested. Barley and rye straw do not fur- 
nish sufficient nutriment to warrant their use. » 

Molasses. — When the price of this feed is low it may be used 
to furnish part of the carbohydrates of a ration. On account of 
its increasing price it is not within the reach of many of our 
feeders. 

Kaffir Corn may be successfully fed in the arid regions where 
corn is not profitably grown, for feeding steers. The Kansas 
Experiment Station found that Kaffir corn was a little below 
corn in feeding value. Where Kaffir corn is available, the 
stover may be fed as is practiced in feeding corn. Kaffir corn 
should be ground or soaked before feeding because of the hard- 
ness of the grains. 

Sorghum Hay is sometimes used to furnish roughage in feed- 
ing steers. The smaller the stems, the more suitable is this 
feed. 

Leguminous Hays. — Alfalfa, clover, cowpea, soy bean, etc., 
may often be used to advantage in furnishing the greater part 
of the nitrogenous portion of a fattening ration. It is often 
very profitable to utilize these hays in this way. Of course the 
market value will influence the extent of their use. 

Grass Hays. — Most of the grass hays are suitable for fatten- 
ing cattle. When corn stover is available it is cheaper to feed 
the stover and sell or save the hay for other live stock. Some- 
times a part of the roughage may be profitably supplied in the 
form of hay. In Western sections prairie hay is often cheap 
and can most profitably be utilized as roughage for fattening 
cattle. Timothy hay is more profitable to sell than to feed cat- 
tle at the present market value. It is low in digestible nutrients 
and cattle cannot use it economically at the present price it car- 
ries. 

Oats is sometimes used in fattening cattle. It is not high 
enough in carbohydrates to furnish the whole of the grain and 
should be supplemented with corn. The market value often 
makes the use of oats unprofitable. 

Wheat. — Ground wheat is about equal to corn for fattening 
purposes. On account of its stickiness, bran, oil meal or some 



212 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 

other concentrate helps with this feed. The price of wheat will 
not always permit its use, but when it sells for the same price 
as corn it may be fed. 

Barley should always be ground before being fed. It is per- 
haps a little below corn for fattening value and not so well liked. 
When accompanied with corn is perhaps the better way of feed- 
ing it. 

Summer Pasturing. — Cattle fed on grain and hay during the 
winter cannot be pastured on green grass entirely without caus- 
ing shrinkage. For this reason some farmers make the change 
from hay to grass gradually. There are two methods used in 
turning steers to grass. One is to wait until the grass gets a 
good growth and accustom the steers to the change by allowing 
them a few hours a day on pasture, gradually increasing the 
period until they become used to it By following this method 
the heavy feeding of grain is still followed and may be reduced 
when the cattle are on full pasture. 

Another method is to turn the cattle to pasture when the 
first blades appear. By doing this the cattle cannot gorge them- 
selves with grass and by the time the grass is abundant the cat- 
tle will be accustomed to it. The objection to this method of 
turning to pasture is that the grass does not have a chance to 
get a good start because of the continual cropping. 

Size of Pasture. — Most American feeders prefer one large 
pasture to several small pastures. One large pasture does away 
with the trouble of changing the steers, offers a greater variety 
of grasses for grazing, and gives the animals more freedom and 
contentment. 

Grain on Grass. — The kind of grain to feed on grass depends 
upon the grasses that make up the pasture. If clovers, alfalfa, 
or other nitrogenous legumes predominate, corn may make up 
the entire grain portion. If timothy, Kentucky blue grass, mead- 
ow fescue, or other grasses relatively high in carbohydrates are 
abundant, a little oil meal, cotton-seed meal, gluten feed, gluten 
meal, etc., should be mixed with the corn for the best results. 
Cattle fed in this way should be ready for market in the sum- 
mer. 



FEED AND CARE OF FATTENING CATTLE 213 

Preparing for the Fall Market. — When cattle are to be mar- 
keted in the fall it is not necessary to feed grain in the early 
summer. In the fall when the corn is ripe, shocked or snapped 
corn may be distributed over the pasture or fed in a rack in the 
field. It is desirable to feed a small quantity, 3 to 4 lbs., of 
corn at first, gradually increasing to a full feed of 15 lbs. a 
day. The cattle may be fed in this way until ready for market 
which will usually be sometime before the winter sets in. An 
addition of a protein concentrate is desirable in this system 
of fattening. 

Water and Salt. — A plentiful supply of pure water should be 
supplied to cattle in the lot twice a day. In pastures a good 
spring will often furnish the water for range feeders. In cold 
weather it is beneficial to take the chill from water with some 
form of heater to cause cattle to drink enough water. 

As with dairy cattle, rock salt or pulverized salt should be 
placed in a sheltered box in the feed lot. When the steers are 
kept in barns or feed lots, ^4 to i 1 /* ounces a day will be enough. 
Some feeders add common salt to the grain but it is necessary 
not to supply too much and make the feed unpalatable. 

Shelter. — In the summer when the flies are troublesome fat- 
tening cattle often fail to gain unless they are taken to some 
dark, cool enclosure for a short time each day during the worst 
periods and fed some grain. Every pasture should have some 
trees to furnish shade. When cattle are fattened for the fall 
market a shelter should be provided in the pasture to protect the 
cattle during the cold fall rains. 

Bedding induces the cattle to rest when they are kept in a 
feed lot or barn. Often a feed lot becomes muddy and a liberal 
supply of straw as bedding provides comfort and contentment. 

Rations for Fattening Cattle. — There are many rations that 
may be computed for fattening cattle. The feeder should aim to 
utilize the cheap coarser feeds, by-products and wastes. By so 
doing, feed stuffs that ordinarily would go to waste or bring 
low prices on the market, may be profitably converted into beef. 
The amount of feed in a fattening ration will depend upon the 
age, weight, appetite and capacity of the animal. A feeder must 



214 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

use his judgment and regard the fattening standards merely as 
guides. 

Suggestion : — Make a list of feeds that could be profitably 

fed in fattening cattle in your section of the country. Compute 







Fig. 16. — A. shorthorn bull— after Good. 



some cheap rations from these feeds. What differences would 
be made in feeding cattle during the different periods of fatten- 
ing? What could be done to economize an animal's food dur- 
ing cold weather ? 



SECTION XXXI. 



FEED AND CARE OF HORSES. 

Requirements. — A horse or mule requires digestible nutrients 
to furnish the energy required for walking, pulling loads, trot- 
ting, etc., and for the repair of the tissues. The degree of work 
determines the amount of digestible nutrients needed. A horse 
or mule doing light, medium or heavy work will require differ- 
ent amounts and proportions of digestible nutrients. See Table 
II. 

According to Massachusetts Experiment Station Bui. 99, the 
requirements of food for horses may be summed up as follows : 

"1. The amount of food required is proportional to the amount 
of work performed. 

"2. The amount of food required is also proportional to the 
speed with which work is done. 

"3. More energy and consequently more food are required 
by a horse when drawing a load at a trot, than at a walk. 

"4. Worry, confusion, fast driving and much stopping, sudden,, 
short and severe labor, all consume much energy and require 
extra food. 

"5. Generally speaking it is believed that truck horses draw- 
ing heavy loads slowly over good roads, require less food than 
express or cab horses. 

"6. Horses doing severe work require more protein than those 
engaged in light work. 

"7. The proportion of protein to carbohydrates (nutritive 
ratio) required, by horses doing moderate work should be about 
1 : 7 or 8, and for horses doing heavy work as 1 : 5 or 6." 

It has been previously remarked that a horse or mule cannot 
consume as much roughage as ruminants. The stomach of a 
horse is small and 10 to 14 lbs. of roughage is enough for a 
day's ration. 

Oats is the best grain for horses. This feed is used to a large 
extent in this country. The high cost of oats has sometimes 
induced feeders to substitute other feeds. Oats may make up 



2l6 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

the whole grain portion of the ration, or it may be used with 
corn, wheat, bran, barley and similar feeds. 

There is no food that will take the place of oats for horses. 
The presence of the hull makes the feed light enough for the 
digestive juices to permeate freely. Oats should be ground for 
horses with poor teeth. Oats is a well balanced feed. 

Barley is sometimes mixed with oats, or fed alone. On the 
Pacific slope, barley is fed a great deal to horses. Crushing or 
grinding barley helps in the mastication. Sometimes linseed 
meal or wheat bran is mixed with barley when fed to horses. 

Wheat. — Ground wheat, mixed with oats or bran, is sometimes 
used as horse feed. Wheat requires some bulky feed to supple- 
ment it, because when fed alone it becomes sticky in the mouth. 
The market value of wheat generally prohibits its use as a horse 
feed. 

Corn is fed extensively in the South and West. It is fed on 
the ear, shelled, or ground fine. Corn and cob meal because 
of its bulk is better for horses than corn meal when fed alone. 
When corn meal is fed it should be diluted with some bulky 
feed like wheat bran. Corn is more of a fattening feed than 
oats and it causes the animal to sweat freely, but may be used 
to good advantage as part of a ration. Corn is a very satisfac- 
tory feed in cold weather for horses because of its heat pro- 
ducing power. Corn runs low in ash and protein and must be 
supplemented with feeds running high in these constituents. 

Kaffir Corn. — When this feed is ground it may be used for 
horses. This feed is not as valuable as corn but may be often 
profitably fed in semi-arid sections where corn cannot be grown 
successfully. 

Cotton-Seed Meal. — As much as 2 lbs. of this feed per day 
may be fed to a horse or mule weighing 1.000 lbs. doing hard 
work. It is not desirable to feed too much cotton-seed meal to 
horses although a moderate daily amount, 1 to 2 lbs., mixed 
with other grains, seems to give good results. There is a great 
variation in the chemical composition of cotton-seed meal as 
manufactured and the feeder should try to secure meal carry- 



FEED AND CARE OF HORSES 21 J 

ing 40 per cent, protein, as the high grade meals are usually 
cheaper per unit of protein. 

Linseed Meal, or oil meal, may be used to supply some of the 
protein of the grain ration. One-fourth to one pound per day 
is generally ample. 

Dried Brewers' Grains. — Experiments have shown this product 
to be a more economical feed for horses than oats at the pres- 
ent prices, in some sections, and of equal feeding value. This 
feed is not as palatable as oats and corn but may be successfully 
fed with mixtures as bran and corn. 

Wheat Bran is often used to lighten rations composed of 
heavy concentrates. It has a slight laxative effect. Some feed- 
ers use it daily in their rations while others feed it two or 
three times a week. 

Molasses. — Cane and beet molasses are both fed to furnish 
carbohydrates. Cane molasses is more palatable than that from 
the beet and is used considerably in feeding horses in some sec- 
tions. The amount of cane molasses to feed per day depends 
upon the feeds that make up the ration and the market price 
of this carbohydrate feed. As high as 12 to 14 lbs. a day have 
been fed with satisfaction but a smaller quantity, 4 to 8 lbs., 
is perhaps sufficient. This feed is used in sections of the South 
where it is available, and is increasing in popularity in the East 
where it is imported from tropical countries, notably Porto 
Rico. 

Beet molasses is bitter and not so palatable as cane molasses 
but may be used when mixed with other feeds. 

Timothy Hay is the best roughage for horses. The feeding 
value is not as high as some other hays, but this feed is usually 
free from dust and objectionable weeds, is easily handled with- 
out loss of nutrients, is relished, is well cured and seems to give 
better results than any other roughage on the American market 
for horses. On account of its bulk it serves as a good rough- 
age for concentrates. Timothy hay is for roughage what oats 
is for grain in horse feeding. 

Clover Hay is not very popular with horse feeders. Often it 
contains dust which is objectionable because it is apt to produce 
15 



2l8 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 

heaves. Well cured clover hay, however, is a good source of 
roughage and when used the protein supplied by the grain should 
be reduced. It is a good complement of starchy concentrates. 
Clover hay is liable to lose some of its leaves and other fine 
parts, which are rich in protein, when carelessly handled. 

Alfalfa Hay. — The same objections are raised to alfalfa hay 
as to clover hay. Well cured alfalfa hay is fed successfully in 
limited quantities to horses. Corn or some other carbohydrate 
feed should supplement alfalfa in the ration. Alfalfa is liked 
by horses and they are liable to eat too much unless the supply 
is limited. The Utah Experiment Station has used alfalfa hay 
for supplying the entire roughage of rations for horses. 

Oat Hay cut in the milk stage and well cured furnishes satis- 
factory roughage for moderately worked horses. 

Corn Fodder is a valuable and cheap roughage for horses. It 
may be fed with corn and bran, corn and oats, and other com- 
binations. It should be harvested before the leaves die because 
this part of the corn plant is relished by horses. For hard work- 
ing horses the stalk should be cut or shredded to render masti- 
cation more easy. It may be used to supply the whole or part 
of the roughage and on account of its cheapness is worthy of 
consideration by all horse feeders. 

Corn Silage may be fed to idle horses. When used for feed- 
ing- working: horses the amount should be small. It is a succu- 
lent feed and increases the appetite. It is somewhat bulky for 
the hard working horse. 

Millet Hay. — The exclusive use of millet as roughage has been 
claimed to increase the action of the kidneys, produce lameness 
and swelling of the joints, and render bones soft. For these 
reasons millet is not a safe feed for horses, although it may 
sometimes furnish a part of the ration. 

Grass Hays. — As previously stated, timothy hay is the best 
grass hay for horses. Sometimes other grass hays are available 
and when well cured and free from dust may economically fur- 
nish the roughage for horses. 

Leguminous Hays. — Besides alfalfa and clover, other of the 
legumes are successfully fed to horses. Cowpea, lespedeza, etc. 



FEED AND CARE OF HORSES 2IQ, 

may be fed when free from dust and well cured. The supple- 
menting of any leguminous hay with grain of course offers a 
chance of reducing the protein in the grain portion. 

Straw in good condition may be used for idle horses, but when 
fed to working horses only a small amount should be given. It 
is not so valuable as hay and therefore a larger quantity of grain 
should accompany its use. Oat straw is the best. Barley, rice 
and wheat straws may also be utilized but rye straw is of little 
value. 

Cotton-Seed Hulls. — In the South this material is sometimes 
used in feeding idle horses. On account of its bulk, a working 
horse has not time to thoroughly masticate it, and when fed 
to hard working horses it should be used in small amounts to 
•furnish a part of the roughage. The feed cannot generally be 
fed profitably at points far from the oil mills. 

Boots are not generally fed in America to horses and mules. 
Sweet potatoes are sometimes used in the South at the rate of 
3 lbs. to i lb. of grain. Horses are especially fond of carrots. 
They are excellent feed for horses fed dry feed. They seem to 
keep the digestive organs in good tone and increase the appetite. 
Not over 10 to 15 lbs. a day should be allowed and they should 
be sliced or pulped. 

Watering. — Horses should be watered regularly with pure 
water. In the winter it is good practice to warm the water when 
it is too cold. Horses require different quantities of water de- 
pending on the atmospheric conditions, the work performed and 
the nature of the feed. 

For horses of 1,200 lbs., 60 to 70 lbs. of water are considered 
average daily amounts, with variations of 30 to 100 lbs. There 
is some difference of opinion as to the best time to water the 
horse. It has been found that it makes no difference as long as 
the horses are watered regularly and with judgment. Hard 
working horses may be watered to advantage before feeding. 
Some advocate watering before and after feeding. 

Bedding. — It is almost needless to say that horses to be kept 
in good condition should have a good clean bed of straw to rest 
on. Horses, like people, require a comfortable bed in order to 



220 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 

sleep and feel well. An unclean bed is liable to produce sickness. 

Salt. — A little salt occasionally is required by horses to keep 
the body in good tone. This may be supplied in the rock or 
pulverized form. 

Wintering Working Horses. — In the winter when there is prac- 
tically no work for the horse comfortable quarters should be 
provided. Coarse roughage as corn stover, straw, etc. may be 




Fig. 17. — Draft type : Clydesdale— after Good. 

used to advantage until spring time. About 6 or 7 weeks before 
the working period sets in the horses should be given a light 
grain ration and exercised to fit them for work. 

System in Feeding. — Dalrymple in Louisiana Experiment Sta- 
tion, Bui. 115, says: 

"A feeder may have all the information necessary concerning 
feeding standards, balanced rations, nutritive ratios, etc., and yet 
be cannot possibly secure the maximum of good results from the 



FEED AND CARE OF HORSES 221 

possession of such knowledge unless he employs a rational and 
intelligent system in the feeding of his animals. 

"Animals under domestication, such as the live stock of the 
farm, and more particularly the work horses and mules, are 
living under artificial conditions in respect to their feeding, and 
are solely at the mercy of the intelligence, or otherwise, of their 
owners for the manner, or system, in which their food is sup- 
plied to them. 

"Under natural conditions, the horse, or mule, owing to the 
anatomical arrangement of its digestive organs, and its physio- 
logical requirements, feeds quite often, but partakes of little at 
a time. The main reason for this is, the relatively small capacity 
of its stomach — not more, perhaps, than from 14 to 17 quarts — 
the short time it takes for the stomach to empty itself, and hence 
the necessity for frequent replenishment. 

In order to obtain the most satisfactory results, under do- 
mestication, or during work, it is reasonable to presume that 
the animal's natural method of feeding should be approximated 
as closely as practicable. During the working season on the 
plantation or farm this would suggest that the day's ration, or 
the amount of food required by the animal in twenty-four hours, 
should be divided into at least three feeds. Some animals may, 
and do, become habituated to a lesser number of feeds per day 
with, apparently, satisfactory results. But it is a risky method, 
because, instead of getting as close as practicable to the animal's 
natural way of feeding, it is getting further away from it. 

"After an opportunity, during the past twenty years, of study- 
ing and observing the conditions under which many of our work 
animals are fed, we have no hesitancy in saying that lack of 
system in feeding is responsible for the major portion of the loss 
of valuable animals from colic, inflammation of the bowels, etc. 

"Many who lose valuable horses and mules on the plantations 
and farms from digestive troubles are wont to place the blame on 
the kind or class of feed the animals have been given ; while, in 
reality, the blame properly belongs to the unnatural and un- 
intelligent manner in which they receive their feed. A properly- 
balanced ration of the very best quality of oats, when fed in- 



222 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 

telligently and systematically, may not induce a case of colic dur- 
ing the natural lifetime of the animal. But if the entire day's ra- 
tion of oats is fed at one time, instead of its being divided into 
three parts, it is liable to so derange the digestive apparatus as to 
set up a fatal case of flatulent colic, because the digestive organs 
in the horse or mule are not constructed, nor prepared, to 
"handle" such an excessive quantity of food material all at once. 
In such a case, are we to blame the oats for the trouble, or the 
unintelligent manner in which they were fed to the animal? 
And so it is with other kinds and classes of concentrated feeds ; 
they require system in their administration to prevent indiges- 
tion, colic, etc., and to produce the best results in the capacity 
of the animal for work. 

"A point of very great importance for the owner or feeder 
to bear in mind, therefore, is, that an animal's food may be 
properly balanced as to its digestible nutrients ; it may be cor- 
rect as to quantity and nutritive ratio ; in fact, be perfect in 
every particular, so far as supplying the needs of the animal 
is concerned ; and yet, if an intelligent system is not employed 
in the feeding of it, the otherwise perfect requirements may be 
altogether vitiated." 

Rations for Horses and Mules. — A few rations fed in different 
parts of the country are given below. These rations are given to 
illustrate the several concentrates and roughage employed by 
practical feeders. Many combinations may be compounded into 
balanced rations for horses and mules doing different kinds of 
work. Of course the make up of a ration is controlled by the 
market values of the available feeds. By studying the text in 
this section the student should have no trouble in compounding 
rations for all classes of horses and mules, no matter what 
degree of work they may be required to perform. A variety of 
feeds in a ration is satisfactory. 



EEED AND CARE OE HORSES 223 

TABLE OF RATIONS. 1 

New Hampshire Experiment Station, Live Weight 1,200-1,300 
Pounds — Farm Horses. 

6 pounds gluten feed 7 pounds bran 8 pounds corn 

2 pounds bran 8 pounds corn 4 pounds linseed meal 

6 pounds corn 10 pounds timothy hay 10 pounds timothy hay 

10 pounds timothy hay 

Iowa Experiment Station — Farm Horses. 

Live weight 1,500-1,600 pounds, heavy work Live weight 1,300 pounds, ordinary work 
15 pounds (oats, corn, bran, 3:2:1) 7^ pounds oats 

15 pounds hay 7j^ pounds corn 

10 pounds oat straw 

Live weight 1,200 pounds Live weight 1,300 pounds, severe work 

6 pounds oats 5 pounds oats 9 pounds oats 
4 pounds corn 5 pounds corn 6 pounds corn 

2 pounds bran 2 pounds bran 10 pounds oat straw 

12 pounds hay 12 pounds hay 

California Experiment Station, Live Weight 1,000 Pounds 

7 pounds crushed barley . 7 pounds cracked corn 

11 pounds wheat hay 12 pounds barley hay 

12 pounds alfalfa hay 10 pounds alfalfa hay 

Truck Horses, Live Weight 1,500 Pounds, Severe Work 
15-20 pounds oats 15-20 pounds equal parts corn and oats 

12-20 pounds hay 12-20 pounds hay 

Army Horses, Live Weight 1,100 Pounds 
12 pounds oats 12 pounds corn 12 pounds barley 

14 pounds hay 14 pounds hay 14 pounds hay 

Express Horses, Live Weight 1,325 Pounds 
2 pounds corn 1.5 pounds bran 

19 pounds oats 9.5 pounds hay 

Carriage Horses, Live Weight 1,050 Pounds 
10 pounds oats 12 pounds hay 

1 Farmers' Bui. 170. 



224 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Rations Adapted from Various Sources. — The following are ra- 
tions that are being fed in different sections of this country and 
represent practical rations. 

Moderate Work, 1,000-1,200 Pounds, Live Weight 



4 pounds dried brewers' grains 

4 pounds wheat bran 
2,fi pounds corn 

1 1 pounds hay 

13 pounds oats 

12 pounds hay 

2 pounds straw 

2 pounds cotton-seed meal'' 
8 pounds wheat bran 

16 pounds cotton-seed hulls. 

3 V 2 pounds linseed meal 
8 pounds corn 

10 pounds hay 

6 pounds oats 

5 pounds barley 

1 1 pounds hay 



2 pounds wheat bran 

6 pounds hominy meal 
4 pounds oats 

12 pounds hay 

7 pounds oats 
7 pounds corn 

12 pounds corn stover 

4 pounds dried brewers' 

5 pounds oats 

10 pounds hay 

2 pounds wheat bran 

6 pounds corn 

6 pounds gluten feed 

1 1 pounds corn stover 

10 pounds corn 

15 pounds corn silage 

14 pounds hay 



5 pounds rice bran 
5 pounds rice polish 
2 pounds cotton-seed meal 
5 pounds molasses (blackstrap) 
12 pounds lespedeza hay 



Heavy Work, 1,000 Pounds, Live Weight 

2 pounds cotton-seed meal 2 pounds cotton-seed meal 

7 pounds shelled corn 10 pounds corn and cob meal 

6 pounds molasses (cane, blackstrap) 2 pounds wheat bran 
12 pounds cowpea hay 5 pounds corn stover 

12 pounds mixed lespedeza and crab 
grass hay 

7 pounds shelled corn 

2 pounds cotton-seed meal 

4 pounds wheat bran 

5 pounds molasses (blackstrap) 
12 pounds lespedeza and crab grass 

hay 

Suggestion : Make a list of concentrates that may replace 
each other for feeding a horse. Why should not a horse in the 
stable doing no work be fed the same as when working? What 
will be the result if the horse's ration is not cut down when idle? 
What is the cheapest balanced ration that can be fed to a horse 
in your locality? How many times a day are the horses fed in 
your county? Do you think you could improve upon the system 
of feeding as practiced in your town? 

1 Sales stable horses and mules. 



SECTION XXXII. 



FEED AND CARE OF SHEEP. 

Requirements. — The natural food of sheep is plants. They 
have four stomachs as is the case with cattle and therefore they 
are able to consume comparatively large quantities of roughage. 
They seem to be able to digest and assimilate the nutrients in 
roughage quite completely as is noticed by the fineness of the 




Fig. iS.— Wool type. 

particles in their manure. The requirements of sheep are some- 
what similar to the requirements of cattle. Sheep require a little 
more protein per pound of live weight than cattle, perhaps be- 
cause of wool production. Fattening lambs also require protein 
to produce growth. As a rule sheep require more digestible 
nutrients per pound live weight and make larger gains per unit 
of digestible nutrients than steers. 

Weed Destroyers. — Sheep may be used to destroy weeds in pas- 
tures and are sometimes called weed destroyers. When grazing 



226 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 

is scant sheep crop the grass very close to the ground and some- 
times injure pastures in this way, but when good pasturage is 
allowed them no injury is done. Sheep will eat weeds that 
other classes of live-stock refuse. By turning a flock of sheep on a 
pasture containing noxious weeds, the pasture is improved by the 
destruction of such weeds and the land is made richer and better, 
and the pasture becomes covered with a smooth growth of grass. 

Pasturing. — In the spring when the grass begins to come up 
the ewes and lambs should be put on pasture for a few hours a 
day, gradually lengthening the period until they become accus- 
tomed to the change from dry to green feed. Alfalfa, clover, 
rape, and rape and corn, make fine pastures for sheep. 

Alfalfa Pasture. — By pasturing on alfalfa in the fall after two 
or three cuttings have been harvested good gains may be made 
for preparing lambs for the early winter market. Good gains 
are made on alfalfa alone but the addition of shelled corn in- 
creases the rapidity of gain. Alfalfa is nitrogenous in character 
and corn makes an excellent grain to feed with it. In feeding- 
corn a little should be supplied at first, 34 of a pound, and 
gradually increased until i pound a day is supplied. When oats 
and bran are cheap they may be fed in place of some of the corn. 

Clover Pasture. — After the hay has been harvested and the 
second growth has a good stand the crop may be pastured by 
lambs. As with alfalfa grain should be supplied lambs that are 
to be sold in the late fall or early winter. 

Rape Pasture. — This plant is becoming popular for pasturing 
sheep. It may be pastured the whole summer or for preparing 
lambs for fall shipment. Sometimes it is cut green and fed in 
racks. The Wisconsin Experiment Station considers rape as 
worth $14.48 to $20 per acre depending on the season. As 
with alfalfa and clover, grain is desirable for preparing lambs 
for the fall market. On account of the fondness sheep have 
for alfalfa and rape they sometimes eat too much when first 
turned to pasture and become bloated. If fed some hay and 
turned to pasture partly filled, bloating should not take place. 

Rape and Corn. — In the West rape is sometimes drilled between 
the rows of corn, when the corn is laid by. When the corn is 



EEED AND CARE OE SHEEP 227 

mature, the lambs are turned into the field and allowed to eat 
both crops. In this way many of the lambs are fattened quickly. 
The lambs should be watched and as soon as they become fat 
they should be taken from the pasture. Sometimes a few lambs 
have to be finished in the feed lot. 

Wintering Fattening Quarters. — Sheep because of their heavy 
coat of wool do not require as warm quarters as cattle. There- 
fore a shelter should be provided that offers plenty of fresh 
air and protection from severe weather. A southern exposure 
is to be preferred. Plenty of bedding is desirable which should 
be renewed and supplied in sufficient quantities to keep the 
animals comfortable. The quarters should be well drained and 
kept as dry as possible to prevent disease such as foot rot. 

Feeding Racks. — The roughage and grain should be supplied 
daily and separately. The hay should be placed in racks large 
enough so that all the sheep may feed at the same time. It 
should only be furnished in quantities sufficient for a feed as 
sheep do not relish hay that remains in the hayrack. Grain 
should be placed in troughs wide enough so that the feed can- 
not be eaten rapidly. This may be accomplished by providing 
a wide bottom to the grain trough thus distributing the grain. 
As with hay only grain enough for a feed should be given. 

Salt. — Sheep require salt and there should always be a sup- 
ply on hand. This may be furnished by nailing several boxes 
about the feed lot or by a separate trough which should be kept 
for this purpose. 

Water. — Sheep do not drink as much water as other classes 
of live-stock. The amount of water consumed varies with the 
nature of the feed and temperature. From 4 to 6 quarts daily 
are considered average amounts. A supply of pure fresh water 
in suitable watering troughs should be in the feed lot. 

Fattening Winter Lambs. — When the lamps are taken from the 
pasture to the feed lot only a moderate amount of grain should 
be given. This may be increased gradually until they are on 
a full ration. The kind of roughage will determine the amount 
and character of grain to use. Should straw, corn stover, or 
grass hay be the roughage, a protein concentrate must be pro- 



228 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



vided as part of the grain ration. If alfalfa, 
other nitrogenous hay be the roughage, shelled 
supply the grain. It is not necessary to grind 
because they are so constructed that they can 
hard grains. When their teeth become poor it 
them on ground grains and market them. 

Dorset the Best Breed for Hot-House Lambs. — I 
fattened lambs are sold at fancy prices at the 



clover, or some 
corn alone may 
grain for sheep, 
easily masticate 
is best to fatten 

n the East many 
age of about 3 




Fig. 19. Dorset ewes— after Wing. 

months for February trade. These lambs are called hot-house 
lambs or winter lambs and usually weigh about 45 lbs. The 
Dorset is considered the best breed for supplying early lambs, 
because of the hereditary tendency towards liberal milk pro- 
duction which fattens lambs early. The Dorset-Merino cross- 
breed and Hampshire are also used for producing hot-house 
lambs, the former being more desirable because of heavier milk 
production. 

It is usually more profitable to fatten lambs for the spring and 



FEED AND CARE OF SHEEP 229 

fall markets than for summer trade. Lambs gain more per 
pound of feed than mature sheep and there is more money made 
in fattening lambs than mature sheep. 

Corn is the best fattening feed for lambs. Experiments have 
shown that about 500 lbs. of corn and 400 lbs. of clover hay 
produced 100 lbs. of gain in live weight. Shelled corn is the 
form in which this material is utilized for sheep. The amount 
of shelled corn in a ration depends upon the character of the 
roughage and the market value of corn. 

Shock Corn. — In some sections the whole stalk of corn is fed 
to sheep. Enough shocked corn for a day's ration is placed in 
the feed rack. The lambs eat the grain, leaves, and more ten- 
der parts of the stalk. Some nitrogenous roughage as alfalfa, 
clover, cowpea, etc., makes an excellent fattening food with 
shocked corn. If nitrogenous hay is not available some pro- 
tein concentrate should be used. 

Oats produce growth in lambs and for a fattening ration corn 
should be added. It is not always profitable to feed oats but 
this is an excellent feed when the market price is low. 

Barley is often fed in sections where corn is hard to grow. 
It may be used in fattening lambs. Barley is not as valuable 
as corn for sheep feeding but may be fed unground with other 
feeds. 

Wheat is not as good as corn for fattening and an addition 
of corn helps a ration containing wheat. Wheat is a better 
feed for producing growth than corn because of its higher con- 
tent of protein. 

Wheat Screenings may often be fed at a profit to sheep. 
This material contains shrunken grains of wheat, weed seeds 
and other wastes obtained in preparing wheat, as it comes from 
the farm, for manufacturing flour. This feed is usually sold 
at a low price and sheep seem to be fond of it. The feeding 
value of this by-product is variable. 

Wheat Bran is not a profitable sheep feed. It is too bulky 
for so small an animal and does not possess sufficient fattening 
qualities to be of material value for fattening lambs. It is 
sometimes fed in small quantities mixed with other grains. 



23O ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Speltz or Emmer grows well in semi-arid regions and it has 
about the same composition as barley. Alfalfa hay fed with 
speltz makes a good sheep feed. The Colorado Experiment Sta- 
tion got better returns by feeding speltz than barley and found 
it to be as valuable as corn in that section. The South Dakota 
Experiment Station found barley to be more valuable than 
speltz and a mixture of barley or corn and speltz to be better 
than speltz alone. 

Protein Concentrates. — Linseed meal, gluten meal, gluten feed 
and cotton-seed meal may often be used in rations deficient in 
protein. When grass hay, stover, etc., are used as roughage 
a mixture of a protein concentrate with shelled corn gives 
good results. The proportion of protein concentrate to corn 
or other carbohydrate concentrate should depend to some ex- 
tent on the prices of these grains, although too large a propor- 
tion of protein concentrate should be avoided. 

Protein Roughage. — Clover, alfalfa and cowpea hays are suit- 
able roughage to supplement corn in completing a sheep ration. 
These crops can be grown on the farm and the necessary pro- 
tein for the growth and repair of the animal body may be sup- 
plied much more cheaply than from protein concentrates. Should 
the supply of protein roughage be limited it could be used with 
straw, corn stover or grass hay. Some protein concentrate 
would be necessary under such conditions but not so much as if 
no protein roughage were utilized. 

Cotton-Seed Hulls are fed to sheep in sections near oil mills. 
This feed makes a good roughage for sheep when the price is 
low. 

Corn Leaves are eaten by sheep with great relish. They are 
not so valuable as the leguminous hays. Sheep do not eat the 
coarser parts of the corn stalk very much even when shredded 
or ground. 

Corn Silage fed in limited quantities tends to keep sheep in 
good health and is excellent during the early period of fatten- 
ing. It would not pay to build a silo just to furnish ensilage to 
sheep but on dairy farms the available silage may be furnished 
to lambs in daily amounts of 1 to 2 lbs. together with about 



FEED AND CARE OF SHEEP 23 1 

^ to I lb. of dry roughage. As corn silage contains some 
grain, the dry grain may be reduced when it is fed. 

Grass Hays. — Lambs fed on grass hays should receive some 
protein concentrate to balance the ration. Most of the grass 
hays are suitable. Millet hay is not favored by sheep feeders 
because it sometimes produces scours. 

Roots like silage furnish succulence, keep the digestive tract 
in good condition, and increase the appetite. In the European 
countries and Canada roots are used a great deal in feeding 
sheep. The feeding of roots in the United States is not as 
profitable as feeding silage in sections where corn may be grown 
extensively. In the South it ought to prove profitable to raise 
roots in the winter for sheep feeding, as the land is often idle 
during the winter and roots are off the land in time to plant 
the summer crops. Some dry roughage should be fed with 
roots. Roots are especially desirable during seasons when sheep 
are off from pasture. Mangels and sugar beets are popular 
roots for feeding sheep. Two to 4 lbs. a day are sufficient. 

Wet Beet Pulp may be utilized at points near sugar factories. 
The laxative effect of beet pulp may be eliminated by using 
a little dry roughage as straw or stover. On account of the 
large amount of water in beet pulp it is not desirable in large 
quantities when finishing lambs. 

Dried Beet Pulp is a fattening food suitable for sheep. The 
market price of this feed will determine whether or not it 
can be profitably used. It is not as valuable as corn. 

Straw. — When other roughage is scarce, straw may be fed as 
part of the roughage. Straw is inferior to hay as feed and 
when other roughage is available straw is undesirable. Some- 
times a feeder may use straw entirely to furnish roughage, in 
which case the grain must be increased to balance the ration. 
Oat straw is better than wheat, rye, or barley straw. 

Feeding Period, Rate of Grain, Etc. — Lambs fed grain on pas- 
ture should be ready for market in 5 to 8 weeks after being 
placed in the feed lot. The total feeding period for sheep 
and lambs when preparing for market should not last over 
15 weeks and often in 12 to 14 weeks they are ready. Lambs 



232 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 













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234 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

average about Y\ of a pound daily gain. According to Lawes 
and Gilbert: "Sheep on good fattening food, such as oil cake 
or corn, with chaff and roots, will consume weekly about 4.75 
lbs. oil cake, 4.75 lbs. of hay, and about 70 lbs. of roots, for 
every 100 lbs. of their live weight. 

"When fed as above, they will consume every week about 1 / 7 
of their own weight of the dry substance of food ; that is, after 
deducting the moisture it contains. 

"Sheep well fed and under cover will increase about 2 per 
cent, upon their weight ; that is to say, 100 lbs. live weight will 
increase from 1.75 lbs. to 2 lbs. per week. 

"To increase 100 lbs. in live weight, sheep will consume about 
225 lbs. of oil cake, or corn, 225 lbs. of hay (chaff), and from 
3,000 to 3,750 lbs. of roots. 

"The increase of a fattening sheep is at the rate of about one 
pound live weight to eight or nine pounds of the dry substance 
of the food consumed." 



SECTION XXXIII. 



FEED AND CARE OF SWINE. 

Swine like horses have but one stomach, therefore they are not 
adapted to consuming as large quantities of roughage as the 
ruminants, cattle and sheep. Grain is very desirable for pigs 
and from equal weights of such feed pigs will gain more than 




Fig. 20.— Grand champion Poland-China sow— after Dietrich. 

the ruminants. Swine generally are made to utilize the wastes 
from the kitchen and the dairy and because of the many wastes 
that would ordinarily be thrown away, the raising of pork is 
usually very profitable. 

Requirements. — The requirements for pork production include 
plenty of bone making material (ash) and a fair supply of pro- 
tein. It was formerly customary to feed very wide rations 
and market the animals very fat at the age of about 15 months, 
weighing 300 to 400 lbs. Such hogs are suitable for the pack- 
ing houses. Local demand at present often calls for pigs of 



236 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



150 to 250 lbs. of rather lean pork, which may be produced in 
a few months, the age depending upon whether they are grain 
or pasture fed. For lean pork a narrower nutritive ratio is 
required than for fat pork. A nutritive ratio of I : 6.5 or 7 
is suitable for the production of lean pork. As with other ani- 
mals the gain in live weight from feed is greater in the earlier 
stages of the fattening period and so it is more profitable to 
market pigs when 5 to 8 months old than when 15 months old. 
This early marketing also gives quicker returns. The follow- 
ing table from Henry's "Feeds and Feeding - ' illustrates this point: 



M 


'it 


Cfl 




en 


C 4/ 
3 O. 


*> "t? 




| 


a 


_5 


« 


CO 

2 


O 55 

E ^ 




"5 >. 








pi 




rt 






S3 > 


Mcs 







V 

bo 


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i's 




it cr 


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Mi- 
es UJ 




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■«5 


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6 


6 




iu S 


> 




> 


< 


fc 


^ 


fc 


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fc 2 


< 


fc 


pounds 


pounds 








pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


pounds 


15- 50 


38 


9 


41 


174 


2.23 


5-95 


O.76 


293 


50- I OO 


7S 


13 


100 


417 


3-35 


4.32 


O.83 


400 


IOO-I50 


128 


13 


119 


495 


4-79 


3-75 


I. IO 


437 


150-200 


174 


11 


107 


489 


5-9i 


3-43 


I.24 


482 


200-250 


226 


12 


72 


300 


6-57 


2.91 


i-33 


498 


250-300 


271 


8 


.6 


223 


7.40 


2-74 


1.46 


5ii 


300-350 


320 


3 


19 


105 


7-5o 


2-35 


1.40 


535 



The average weight of 34,400,000 market hogs for the year 
ending March 1, 1908 was 226.58 lbs., costing the packers $5.52 
per 100 lbs. 1 This shows that 225-230 lbs. is about the aver- 
age weight of the market hog of to-day. 

Corn is the most common feed for swine. It is high in car- 
bohydrates and low in protein and ash, and is suited for the 
quick production of fat. 

Shelled corn, corn meal and corn on the cob are about of 
equal feeding value for swine ; corn meal being perhaps slightly 
superior. If shelled corn is very hard, causing sore mouths, 
it should either be soaked in water for a day or so or else ground 
to a meal. Sometimes grinding is too expensive but is prefer- 
able when practicable. Corn meal should always be soaked with 

1 Coburn, " Swine in America." 



FEED AND CARE OF SWINE 237 

water just before feeding to render it more palatable. Corn 
is often profitably fed without the addition of any other grain 
when pigs (are on good leguminous pasture or rape. The 
amount of corn to use in the ration depends upon the age of 
the pigs. Young pigs require more protein and ash, to supply 
nutrients to furnish growth, than mature animals. Corn alone 
does not contain enough protein and ash to supply the needs 
of young pigs, therefore it is necessary to supplement it with 
materials rich in protein and ash, and use it in smaller propor- 
tions for young pigs. Wood ashes, bone meal, etc., are often 
fed pigs that are kept in pens, to furnish sufficient ash to form 
strong bones, especially when corn is the only grain fed. Swine 
on pasture do not generally require to be supplied bone form- 
ing materials as they secure an ample supply from the pasture. 

Wheat should always be ground for pigs. It meets the re- 
quirements of young pigs better than corn because of its higher 
percentage of protein and mineral compounds. It is consid- 
ered of equal feeding value to corn and produces pork of fine 
flavor. When the price is low this feed is very profitable for 
pork production. A mixture of wheat and corn meal or wheat 
and barley, is better than when fed alone. A combination of 
wheat and skim milk makes an excellent food for young pigs. 
Sometimes wheat is soaked for a day before feeding but this is 
not as satisfactory as wheat meal. Experiments show an in- 
crease of one pound gain from about 5 lbs. of wheat. 

Wheat Middlings or Shorts is a suitable feed for all ages of 
swine. A mixture of shorts and corn, shorts and barley, or 
shorts and skim milk, produces firm pork. This feed should 
never compose the whole grain of the ration as when fed alone 
the pork is liable to be soft. This by-product seems to be es- 
pecially adapted for pork production and should be used with 
other feeds and when the market price will permit. For young 
pigs middlings gives fine results. 

Wheat Bran is not adapted to young pigs because it is too bulky 
and coarse and contains too much fiber. It is sometimes fed in 
small amounts to brood sows but it is not generally popular. 

Wheat Screenings when cheap may sometimes be profitably 



238 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

utilized for pigs. The composition of this material is variable. 
It should be soaked before feeding. 

Barley is considered the best cereal for the production of 
firm, well flavored pork. There are two varieties grown in this 
country, namely, the bald and common. The bald variety is 
preferable because of the smaller amount of hull. It should be 
ground or soaked and makes a good combination with legumin- 
ous hay and skim milk before fattening. A mixture of barley 
and corn makes a good fattening ration although sometimes the 
barley is used alone. 

Rye is considered of about equal feeding value to barley in 
the production of pork. It is best to feed rye ground and in 
the form of a slop. It should not constitute more than J /z of 
the ration as swine seem to tire of it. An addition of corn is 
of material value in furnishing a palatable ration with rye. 

Kaffir Corn. — This feed should be soaked or ground on account 
of its small hard seed. It is not the equal of corn meal for 
fattening. It also has the tendency of producing constipation. 
From experiments conducted at the Kansas Experiment Sta- 
tion, Georgeson concludes that : "Red Kaffir corn meal did not 
prove quite equal to corn meal as a fattening food. A mixture 
of 2 /z Kaffir corn meal and }i soy bean meal produced excel- 
lent gains. The soy bean meal apparently corrected the defects 
of the Kaffir corn meal in such a way as to make the mixture 
a desirable feed. A mixture of % corn meal and z /z soy bean 
meal gave slightly better results than Kaffir corn meal and soy 
bean meal. The conclusion to be drawn from this is that 
red Kaffir corn meal is not as good a feed for hogs as corn 
meal, but that when either Kaffir corn meal or corn meal is 
mixed with soy bean meal the results are highly satisfactory." 

Millet Seed. — Experiments conducted at the South Dakota 
Experiment Station with ground millet seed proved this feed 
to be less valuable as a feed for swine than wheat or barley. 
Twenty per cent, more millet seed was required to produce one 
pound of gain than barley and it seemed to produce a softer 
pork than barley or wheat. Millet seed is relished by swine 
and in certain localities it should prove a profitable feed. It 



FEED AND CARE OF SWINE 239 

may be fed with corn but in such a mixture the corn should pre- 
dominate. 

Oats give better returns when fed ground or crushed. Some- 
times oats are soaked before feeding. As a general rule oats are 
too expensive to feed hogs. They are not satisfactory for young 
pigs on account of their bulk, but may be fed if the hulls are re- 
moved. A mixture of wheat and oats (when the hulls are 
sifted out) forms a good ration for growing pigs. Oats are 
inferior to corn for fattening and therefore should be cheaper 
than corn to feed profitably. 

Canada Field Peas are rich in protein and in sections where 
they are easily grown are a valuable hog feed. They should never 
be fed alone. They may be fed unground, ground or soaked. 
Mixed with corn, wheat, barley or rye they complete a good fat- 
tening ration. Before the fattening period they are considered 
better than corn. 

Linseed Meal should not form over 5 per cent, of the grain 
portion of the ration as large amounts of this feed seem objec- 
tionable. As a supplement in limited amounts, it proves bene- 
ficial in that it aids digestion and produces laxativeness. 

Cotton-Seed Meal is not considered entirely safe as a food for 
swine when continually fed or when supplied in large quantities. 
Bui. 85 of the Arkansas Experiment Station says : "According 
to our experience, any economic advantages to be derived from 
feeding this material will be secured by amounts well within the 
danger limit, and that independent of its effects on health. For 
the benefit of those who may wish to take the chances on feed- 
ing cotton-seed meal or cotton-seed to hogs continuously, the 
following allowances appear to be well within the danger limit : 

Pigs under 50 pounds 1 / i pound per day 

Pigs from 50-75 pounds x / 3 pound per day 

Pigs from 75-100 pounds 2 / 5 pound per day 

Pigs from 100-150 pounds 1 / 2 pound per day 

"If fed a full grain allowance, the dosage may be obtained by 
properly proportioning the cotton-seed meal to the other com- 
ponents of the ration, namely: one to five, six, seven, or eight, 
according to the stage of growth. A meal ration containing 



240 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

cotton-seed meal should also contain at least an equal amount 
of wheat bran to supply bulk. For the remainder, corn appears 
to be the only choice." 

Bui. 78 of the Texas Experiment Station says : 

'"For animals on heavy feed, that not more than one-fourth 
the weight of the grain ration consists of cotton-seed meal. 

"That this feeding continue not more than 50 days, or that the 
proportion of meal be reduced if feeding is to be continued 
longer. 

"That the meal be mixed with the other feed and all soured to- 
gether." 

"That as much green feed as possible be supplied to the hogs." 

"That a close watch be kept and the meal taken from any 
animals not eating or not gaining well. 

"One pound of cotton-seed meal to five of corn furnishes the 
nutrients in the most desirable proportions for fattening, while 
one or two of corn are more nearly correct for young stock." 

It is understood that the United States Department of Agri- 
culture have been endeavoring to eliminate the toxic or poisonous 
principle in cotton-seed meal and if they successfully accomplish 
this, it will render this material much safer and more valuable 
for a feed for animals of all kinds. 

Rice Polish is especially adapted for fattening hogs. It con- 
tains more protein than corn and sufficient carbohydrates to make 
it a good fattening food. The Alabama Experiment Station 
found that 373 lbs. of rice polish produced 100 lbs. of gain as 
compared with 474 lbs. of corn meal. Or 78.6 lbs. of rice polish 
were equal to 100 lbs. of corn meal. This feed is not generally 
in the American markets except in a few sections and where it 
can be purchased at a reasonable price it may be used to good 
advantage in fattening hogs. The Louisiana rice polish is usual- 
ly of good quality. 

Rice Meal. — This product is pure rice bran. The South Caro- 
lina Experiment Station found that rice meal was superior to 
corn meal as a fattening food for swine. The Massachusetts 
Experiment Station found that equal weights of corn meal and 
rice meal when fed with skim milk were of equal feeding value. 



EEED AND CARE OF SWINE 24 1 

This by-product, like rice polish, is hard to purchase at a reason- 
able price, outside of certain localities. The experienced feeder 
of rice by-products should have no difficulty in securing rice meal 
instead of rice bran adulterated with hulls. 

Packing House By -Pro ducts. — Digester tankage and dried blood 
are fed to furnish protein to supplement corn in rations for hogs. 
These by-products should be fed in limited quantities because 
they are very concentrated. Tankage should not make up more 
than 10 per cent, of a ration and dried blood in quantities 
of a tablespoonful is sufficient. These concentrates should be 
thoroughly mixed with the grain portion of the ration so that 
each pig will not secure any more than its share. For young 
pigs these amounts should be reduced. The use of these feeds 
seems to shorten the fattening period and keep up the appetite. 
It must be understood that the value of these by-products de- 
pends upon their composition and quality which is sometimes 
variable. 

Dairy By-Products. — Skim milk, buttermilk and whey are the 
dairy by-products fed to swine. 

1. Skim milk may be fed to swine of all ages. Experiments 
show that 3 lbs. of skim milk to 1 lb. of meal give the best 
returns. Skim milk develops strong bones and produces good 
body tissue. 

2. Buttermilk, when not diluted, has about equal value to skim 
milk. It is perhaps not so valuable as skim milk for feeding 
young pigs. Skim milk and buttermilk are rich in protein and 
ash, and as corn meal is rather deficient in these constituents, they 
are complementary feerK 

3. Whey. The value of this by-product for feeding depends 
upon its source. Experiments gave best results when whey was 
fed with ground corn, barley, rye, or wheat. Whey is a bulky 
food and can be utilized to better advantage by old than young 
animals. According to Henry in averages of results of the Wis- 
consin and Ontario Experiment Stations, 785 lbs. of whey will 
equal 100 lbs. of grain. 

Molasses. — The results of experiments in feeding hogs with 
beet molasses have not been favorable for using this by-product 



242 EI^MENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

for swine feed. The large amount of potash salts in the ash 
of beet molasses is liable to produce scouring when fed in other 
than limited quantities. In Louisiana cane molasses is fed to hogs. 
Hogs are extremely fond of it and seem to thrive on it. The 
writer believes a limited quantity, when the market price is low, 
will prove a profitable fattening food. Cane molasses is high 
in digestible carbohydrates and when corn is fed, the roughage 
should be nitrogenous. Cane molasses is in such demand by 
manufacturers of mixed feeds, syrup mixers, and as a feed for 
mules and horses, that it is questionable whether it can be used 
by the economical feeder. 

Leguminous Hays. - Clover and alfalfa are excellent roughage 
to feed with concentrates as corn, barley, rye, wheat, rice polish, 
etc. It should be the aim of every feeder to harvest these crops 
when the stems are small and tender, and prevent the loss of the 
'leaves and finer parts, to furnish them in the best condition for 
hogs. These hays should be ground, scalded and added to the 
grain and fed about once a day. These nitrogenous hays are 
not satisfactory to feed during the finishing period but supply 
protein in a cheap form for the early periods of fattening. 

Peanuts are used a great deal in the Gulf States to fatten hogs. 
The vines are first harvested or grazed with cattle or sheep and 
then the swine are turned on to harvest the peanuts. It has been 
found profitable to allow the swine either a field of corn or to 
supply corn to them while they are on peanuts, as peanuts alone 
do not make firm pork. It is estimated that an acre of Spanish 
peanuts will furnish sufficient food for 8-10 hogs depending upon 
the grain supplied and the length of time they are kept on the 
pasture. Peanuts are considered more profitable than corn for 
pigs, as 3 lbs. of peanuts make I lb. of pork, while it takes 5 lbs. 
of corn to produce a pound of gain. 

Roots are too bulky and contain too much water to be con- 
sidered favorably as fattening feed. They may be used for brood 
sows' suckling pigs as they tend to increase milk production. The 
local conditions will determine whether to raise roots for swine 
feeding:. 



FEED AND CARE OF SWINE 



243 



Corn Silage may be fed to brood sows' suckling pigs as this 
feed exerts the same influence on milk production as roots. On 
farms where this feed is available it may be utilized. 

Following the Cattle. — In those sections where corn is exten- 
sively grown and fed to cattle, it is common to have shotes weigh- 
ing 90-150 lbs. follow the cattle and glean the droppings. About 




Fig. 21.— Chester white sow — after Plumb. 



15 shotes are allowed to 10 steers. Sometimes the number of 
shotes is increased when a large amount of grain is fed or scat- 
tered. Two feeding lots are often provided and the hogs are 
turned into the lot that the steers occupied the previous day. In 
the fall and early winter the shocked or snapped corn is scattered 
about the pasture and the steers eat all they wish. Considerable 



244 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

grain is left about and this and whatever is undigested is eaten 
by the hogs. By keeping the steers and hogs separated, the corn 
is not trampled so badly, and the animals are more contented. The 
more shotes put on the pasture the more grain must be fed. As 
soon as a hog becomes fat another should replace it. This 
method of feeding hogs is considered the cheapest in the corn 
sections. All the gain from hogs so fattened is usually profit 
because what the steers waste and void would ordinarily be lost. 
Again the land is made richer by fattening cattle and hogs in this 
way. Should more hogs be used than there is feed for, it is 
necessary that some feed be supplied the hogs. 

Pasturing. — Pigs do well when pastured on clover, alfalfa, 
cowpeas, rape, field peas, barley, rye, wheat, etc. When pigs root 
they should be rung to prevent them from injuring the plants. 
Experiments have shown that alfalfa is the best pasture crop 
for pigs. Feeding corn on pasture is profitable when corn is 
cheap and the crop is nitrogenous. On barley, rye, etc., a supple- 
ment of tankage, dried blood, oil meal, or skim milk is desira- 
ble. In the absence of corn, other grains as wheat, barley, 
rye, etc., may be substituted. The Wisconsin Experiment Sta- 
tion found rape superior to clover as a pasture crop for swine. 

Wet Meal Better Than Dry Meal.— The experiments generally 
show that larger gains were made by feeding wet instead of dry 
meal and that larger quantities were consumed of wet meal. 

Exercise. — Of course the young pigs require more exercise 
than those that are mature. Exercise tends to keep away disease. 
Pigs on pasture or in lots do better than those in pens. Ex- 
ercise seems beneficial and experiments have been conducted to 
prove this point. 

Water. — Fresh water should be supplied to pigs in convenient 
and clean troughs or fountains. In winter the warming of it is 
beneficial. 

Cleanliness. — In order to keep swine in good health the feeding 
troughs should be kept clean. If dairy by-products, slop, or 
refuse such as swill are fed, it is not long before the feeding pen 
becomes filthy unless proper care is given to it. In pens the 
pigs should be allowed fresh clean bedding and the pens should 



FEED AND CARS OF SWINE 245 

'be disinfected once in a while with a weak solution of carbolic 
acid, zenoleum or other disinfectant. A dipping tank is ad- 
visable on every farm to wash off those pigs that become infected 
with lice and so prevent the spread of disease. Many farmers 
think that pigs ought to do well when the food becomes mixed 
with manure and filth, as is the case in filthy pens, but for 
the greatest profits filth should be avoided and cleanliness is 
necessary. In clean pens pigs fatten more rapidly and are 
generally free from disease. When kept in a feed lot dry 
situations should be selected and bedding provided to make them 
comfortable. 

Rations for Fattening Swine 

Per 1,000 pounds, live weight 1 
9 pounds cowpeas 8 pounds cowpeas 

10 pounds corn meal 12 pounds middlings 

30 pounds sweet potatoes 21 pounds corn 

12 pounds rice meal 20 pounds corn 

22 pounds corn 40 pounds middlings 

37 pounds skim milk (gravity) 

Rations from Various Sources— Experiment Stations 
Ground peas 1 2 parts corn meal 

Ground barley y equal parts 1 part shorts 

Ground rye J 

Corn meal Shorts 

Bran Chopped wheat 

Gluten meal Oats 

Skim milk or buttermilk Bran 

2 parts corn meal Corn meal 1 part chopped wheat 

2 parts shorts Gluten meal 1 part shorts 

2 parts oil meal Skim milk 1 part ground oats 

4 parts whole wheat Wheat meal Corn meal 2 parts corn meal 

1 part bran Buttermilk Wheat meal 1 part ground oats 

1 pound corn meal 2 parts Kaffir corn meal 

3 pounds skim milk or buttermilk 1 part soy bean 
Suggestion : Why is it that the gains made by the young pig 
during the first months of life, are more profitable than later 
gains? Have the student make suitable rations for hogs for the 
different periods of fattening. What differences should be made 
in feeding, breeding and fattening stock? Why? 

1 Bui. 115, Louisiana Experiment Station. 



SECTION XXXIV. 



FEED AND CARE OF YOUNG FARM ANIMALS. 

Requirements. — In supplying the needs of young animals the 
nutrients should be furnished in such proportions as to produce 
a strong healthy growth. The ration must furnish nutrients 
to build up and strengthen the bones ; it must supply digesti- 
ble nutrients so necessary for the rapid formation of body tis- 
sue. The feeding of the young animal influences to a great ex- 
tent the efficiency of the animal for its purpose in future life. 
Many animals are ruined by improper feeding when young. 

Composition of Animal Bodies. — In order to understand the re- 
quirements of young animals let us find out the composition of 
the bodies of the young and more mature animals. The analyses 
of the whole body of a calf made by Lawes and Gilbert, and 
of a steer made by the Maine Experiment Station, show the 
following composition : 





Protein 
per cent. 


Fat 
per cent. 


Ash 
per cent. 


Water 
per cent. 


Dry matter 
per cent. 


Calf 


16.5 
17.5 


14.I 
20.2 


4.8 

5-2 


64.6 

57-i 


35-4 
42.9 







These analyses correspond to those of young and mature ani- 
mals of other species. A study of these analyses shows that 
the young animal body contains more water and a greater pro- 
portion of protein to fat than that of the more mature animal. 
Therefore we should aim to furnish nutrients in such propor- 
tions that will have a narrow nutritive ratio. 

Nature has fortunately provided, in mothers' milk, the food 
requirements of young animals. We cannot improve upon this 
food, but it is often profitable and sometimes necessary to wean 
the animal as early as possible. To accomplish this, substitutes 
for mothers' milk must be provided to satisfy the nutrients es- 
sential to good healthy growth. 

1. Feeding the Beef Calf.— If the most rapid gain is desired 
in raising the calf it should be allowed all the mother's milk 



FEED AND CARE OF YOUNG FARM ANIMALS 247 

it can consume, but sometimes the calf gets too much in this 
way, which brings about indigestion. In such cases the calf 
should only receive a limited amount and the excess in the 
cow's udder should be stripped twice a day. Sometimes a cow- 
giving a generous supply of milk may feed two calves in which 
case stripping will not be necessary. 

Experiments show that a calf on mother's milk will gain 
faster during the first month than for the following months. 
A gain of about 2^2 to 3 lbs. a day for the first month and 
about 2 lbs. for the following days may be expected, Hunt 
found that calves fed whole milk from a pail gained 1.77 lbs. 
daily from 8.7 lbs. of whole milk and one pound of grain and 
one pound of hay per pound of growth. About 6 to 10 lbs. of 
whole milk produces one pound of gain. 

Generally calves are allowed milk for four to six months, the 
latter period being preferable when possible, because whole milk 
puts on good flesh. 

After Weaning, the calf should be allowed pasture or green 
crops in the summer, and roots or silage in the winter, to fur- 
nish the succulence so necessary to keep the calf in a healthy 
growing condition. At this stage grain should be furnished 
in addition to whole milk. Oats, shelled corn, oil meal, gluten 
feed and bran are adapted for feeding calves. Calves be- 
come very fond of corn, but this grain should never be fed 
alone because it contains too high a content of carbohydrates to 
be a growing food. It may be amended with whole oats and 
oil meal, or gluten feed, or with oats and wheat bran. Either 
of these combinations furnish sufficient protein to balance the 
ration. Bran and oil meal serve to regulate the digestive organs. 

After the calf is weaned the feeder must try to prevent the 
loss of weight and endeavor to produce gain. The feeding of 
grain while the calf is on mother's milk tends to lessen shrink- 
age when the calf is weaned. Protein from some roughage 
should supplement the grain. This may be furnished in winter 
by clover, alfalfa, cowpea or other nitrogenous hay and in the 
summer by good pasturage. 



248 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

2. Feeding 1 the Dairy Calf. — The practice of allowing the calf 
practically all the milk it desires is not profitable in dairying. 
Hence the calf must be weaned as soon as possible and substi- 
tutes furnished to take the place of the whole milk. The calf 
should stay with the mother for two or three days as the 
colostrum ( first milk ) fits the digestive tract for later reception 
of food. On the third or fourth day the calf may be separated 
from the mother and fed 10 lbs. of whole warm milk daily, 
from a pail. This amount should be gradually increased until 
15 lbs. are fed. The old fashioned way of placing the fingers 
in the pail is the best way to teach the calf to drink. There are 
many arrangements on our market to serve this purpose but they 
are not satisfactory as they are hard to keep clean, and there- 
fore harbor germs. The calf should receive the whole warmed 
milk at least three times a day and it should always be warmed. 
At the expiration of two and one-half to three weeks, warm 
skim milk may be partially substituted for some of the whole 
milk. Just a little skim milk should be used at first and the 
amount gradually increased. The changing from whole to skim 
milk should take one and one-half to two weeks. When the 
calf is on skim milk entirely, 18 lbs. should suffice, although 
sometimes a larger amount is beneficial. Often feeders give 
calves too much skim milk and the result is sickness. It should 
be understood that calves fed on skim milk are not so fleshy as 
those fed on whole milk, because skim milk is deficient in fat, 
but skim milk produces growth for about ^ of what it costs 
with whole milk. 

Grain and Skim Milk. — Some feeders utilize skim milk entirely 
but an addition of cooked flaxseed meal or cooked oil meal is 
more satisfactory. Cooked flaxseed meal is especially to be rec- 
ommended. It contains high percentages of protein and fat, a 
low percentage of carbohydrates, and is easily digestible. It is 
laxative and tends to keep the young animal in good condition. 
At the beginning, about a spoonful of cooked flaxseed meal or 
oil meal may be placed in the warm skim milk. This amount 
should be gradually increased until the calf is consuming 3/3 to 
Yz lb. a day. Feeds as corn meal, shorts, bran, gluten feed, 



FEED AND CARE OF YOUNG FARM ANIMALS 249 

oats, etc., may be used. Frequent feeding is essential for the 
welfare of the calf and care should be taken not to overfeed. 
The calf may be taught to eat grain by placing a little in the 
mouth after it has finished drinking the milk. When grain is 
fed there should not be any left over after a meal. If so reduce 
the amount and never let grain remain in the feeding trough after 
a meal. A little nitrogenous hay as alfalfa, clover, etc., or when 
this is not available, corn stover or well cured grass hay, should 
be continually supplied. According to Henry a dairy calf should 
not gain over one and one-half pounds a day during the first 
four months and less thereafter. 

All feeding utensils should be kept thoroughly clean and it is 
important that the feeding pails be frequently scalded. 

Care of Calves. — Calves are not so rugged as cows and should 
be well protected from the cold of winter and the extreme heat 
and flies of summer. When flies are troublesome the calf may 
be pastured at night. On favorable winter days the calf may be 
turned into a sunny enclosure for exercise. In the summer, 
when it is very hot, the calf may be pastured early in the morn- 
ing and late in the afternoon, which will allow of sufficient 
exercise and sunshine. A few minutes spent each day in brush- 
ing the calf will be found beneficial. 

3. Feeding the Colt. — When the colt is born, the dam and 
foal should be kept in the barn for a few days. Easily digested 
food, in small amounts, is desirable at this time. A bran 
mash is relished once a day. The mare with a colt should be 
regarded as a milch animal and foods that tend to produce a 
good flow of milk should be supplied. To bring this about in 
summer the dam and foal may be turned on pasture, and in 
winter, succulent feeds as roots or silage should be fed. If 
the dam and foal are turned on pasture they should be looked 
after every day to be sure they are in good health. As with 
cows, some mares give too much milk and this must be regu- 
lated by drawing the last of the milk and changing the food 
so as to reduce the milk production. In case the mare is on 
pasture the time of pasturing may be limited and a little dry 
feed fed. Should the mare not furnish enough milk, succulent 
17 



250 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

feeds that tend to increase milk giving are helpful. Should 
this fail, the colt may be fed whole cows' milk which may be 
gradually supplanted with skim milk. Intelligent feeders are 
very successful with this manner of feeding colts when such is 
necessary. A colt may be reared on cows' milk. 

Sometimes a mare must be worked. If so the colt should be 
allowed to run with its mother for two or three weeks so as to 
receive a sufficient supply of nourishment. At the end of this 
time the colt may be kept in the barn and put with the mother 
three times a day. 

Grain for the Colt. — In order to produce flesh that will not 
shrink greatly after weaning, grain is essential. A feed box in 
the stall or feed lot should be placed low enough so that the 
colt can conveniently reach it and ground oats, whole oats, 
shelled or cracked corn, bran, shorts and oil meal may be placed 
in it. The colt will soon learn to relish the grain. If the colt 
is on pasture a separate enclosure may be built that will permit 
of the colt's entrance but not of the mare's, where oats and 
other grain food may be supplied. 

Food After Weaning. — At the end of five months the colt may 
be weaned. Easily digested foods in limited quantities such as 
ground oats, cracked corn, bran, shorts and oil meal are good. 
Oats is the best grain for the colt, but a mixture of other grains 
is desirable. Sometimes soft foods as mashes, crushed oats, 
corn meal, etc., are relished and necessary when the teeth are 
being cut. Roughage, as well cured hay, straw, corn stover, 
etc., helps to increase the efficiency of the digestive organs and 
accustoms the animal to eating such feed as will be supplied 
when it is more mature. Colts are apt to eat more roughage 
than is good for them unless the supply is limited. Plenty of 
exercise is about as important as furnishing the proper amount 
of food. Many colts are ruined by overfeeding and lack of 
exercise. 

4. Feeding the Lamb. — When the lamb is born it is often nec- 
essary to help it secure its first food. Sometimes the ewe must 
be held for the first day or so. In some cases it becomes nec- 
essary to place the ewe and lamb in a pen away from the rest 



FFFD and cars of young farm animals 251 

of the sheep, when the mother refuses to own her lamb, and in 
a few days the mother will claim it. 

In case the mother dies, the lamb may be reared on cows' milk 
by feeding with a bottle. At first the lamb must be fed about 
15 times a day and when two weeks old, feeding may be cut 
down to three times a day. 

Feed for Ewes' Suckling Lambs. — The lamb is most always fed 
through its mother; therefore a milk producing ration is nec- 
essary. In the summer the ewes' suckling lambs will get along 
nicely on good pasturage, without grain. In the winter, roots 
or silage, clover or alfalfa hay, and some grains as oats, corn, 
shorts, bran, peas, oil meal and gluten feed are adapted for 
producing a good milk supply. In the absence of nitrogenous 
hay, well cured grass hay, straw or corn stover may be utilized. 
Timothy hay is not desirable for sheep. Many good rations 
may be fed depending upon the feeds available and their market 
prices. The ration should always be such as to produce a liberal 
flow of milk. A mixture of ^4 to 1 pound of the following 
feeds are satisfactory for the grain portion of a day's ration : 

Oil meal 1 part Corn 2 parts 

Corn meal 2 parts Oats 2 parts 

Bran 2 parts Shorts 1 part 

Grass hay 2 pounds Clover or alfalfa hay. 2 pounds 

Roots or silage 2 pounds Roots or silage 2 pounds 

Corn 2 parts Bran 3 parts 

Bran 2 parts Oil meal 1 part 

Gluten feed 1 part Sliced roots or silage- 2 pounds 

Grass hay 2 pounds Nitrogenous hay • . • . 2 pounds 

Roots or silage 2 pounds 

If the ewe gives too much milk the feed should be changed. 
If on pasture the ewe may be taken off for a certain length of 
time each day and supplied a little dry feed. If in the barn the 
succulent feeds may be reduced. 

Grain for Lambs. — Lambs should be supplied with a little grain 
to produce the best growth. Experiments show that lambs 
fed grain in addition to mothers' milk, gain faster than those 
that do not receive grain. Sometimes it may not prove profitable 
to feed grain to lambs on pasture unless they are to be sold in 



252 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

the fall. If kept for winter or spring markets they may be fed 
grain for marketing at that time. When grain is fed to lambs 
a separate feeding trough not accessible to the mothers should 
be in every pen or pasture to provide the grain. No feed should 
be left over from time to time. 




Fig. 22. — Mutton type. 



The Wisconsin Experiment Station found that one pound of 
ewe's milk produced 0.15 lb. gain; a daily gain of 0.4 to 0.6 of 
a pound per lamb was made ; lambs before weaning required 
4 lbs. of grain for a gain of 1 lb. The Maine Experiment Sta- 
tion found that 5^ lbs. of grain produced 1 lb. gain. 



FFFD AND CARE OF YOUNG FARM ANIMALS 



253 



5. Feeding- the Pig*. — In rearing pigs it is desirable to produce 
rapid gain and a strong bony structure to support the body. 
When they are born they may be kept away from the sow except 
at feeding time, because they are liable to be killed or injured 
by the sow laying on them. When they become lively this 
separation will be unnecessary. At the age of two weeks the 
pig may be supplied with a mixture of skim milk and middlings 
in feeding troughs not accessible to the sow. At four weeks a 
little corn meal may be substituted for part of the middlings, 
which may be gradually increased until equal parts of corn meal 
and middlings are fed. Ground oats, barley, and peas are suit- 
able and may be used instead of corn meal and middlings. 
Soaking or wetting feed for young pigs seems to be beneficial ; 
hence it is good practice to add the dry feed to the skim milk. 

The pig is generally weaned at the age of 7 to 12 weeks. 
The Wisconsin Experiment Station found that late weaning at 
the age of 10 to 12 weeks is profitable. Just as rapid gains were 
made by feeding through the mother as to the pigs. The ad- 
vantage of late weaning is that it affords the utilization of 
cheaper feeds than can be fed to the young pig. The practice 
of gradually drying off a sow by weaning the strongest pigs 
first is a good one. 

The following table from Henry's "Feed and Feeding," is the 
work of the Wisconsin Experiment Station and was conducted 
to determine the gain of young pigs : 



Age of pigs 




Gain in 

7 days 

per cent. 



At birth 

First week • • • 
Second week . 
Third week . . 
Fourth week . 
Fifth week . . 
Sixth week • • 
Seventh week 
Eighth week . 
Ninth week • . 
Tenth week. • 



76. 

59- 
40. 
28. 
25. 
19- 
22. 

23- 
19- 
16. 



254 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Exercise. — Young pigs should be forced to exercise as they 
are liable to become very fat. Feed may be scattered about the 
litter which will give the young pigs some work, or they may 
be driven about a yard for a few times every day. 

Suggestion : — What are the bone producing elements and what 
feeds contain these in the most suitable proportions? Why 
should young stock be fed narrower nutritive ratios than mature 
animals ? 



SECTION XXXV. 



FEED AND CARE OF POULTRY. 

The Importance of feeding poultry properly may be realized 
when we become acquainted with the extent of this industry in 
the United States. For the year 1908 1 the value of poultry and 
eggs in this country was as much as the cotton crop, seed in- 
cluded, or the hay crop, or the wheat crop. The hay crop for 
1908 1 was valued at $635,423,000. 

Requirements. — The requirements of poultry are somewhat 
different than for horses, cattle and sheep in that poultry re- 
quire both animal and vegetable food. The vegetable food may 
be low in ash in which case animal food as bone should be sup- 
plied to furnish phosphate of lime. When the vegetable por- 
tion of the ration is deficient in protein the animal food should 
make up for this deficiency. In fattening mature fowls vegeta- 
ble food may predominate and animal food may be added to 
increase the palatability of the ration. A variety of foods seems 
to give the best results, because of the increase in palatability 
and beneficial influence in keeping the fowls in good condition. 

Foods should make up the ration to supply the nutrients in the 
right proportions. A different ration is required for fattening 
fowls than for those producing eggs or breeding. Some breeds 
used for egg production take on fat more readily than others 
and the feed should be administered so that they will have to 
exercise to keep them laying. Other breeds like the Leghorns, 
may be fed differently because they are not prone to fatten rap- 
idly. 

Composition of Fowls and Eggs. — Before taking up the feeds 
and amounts of nutrients needed for fowls, let us study the 
composition of the body and the egg. The New York Experi- 
ment Station made several analyses of fowls and some of the 
results of this work are given in the following table, which was 
compiled from Jordan's "The Feeding of Animals:" 

1 1908 Yearbook, United States Dept. of Agriculture. 



2^6 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Protein 
per cent. 



Fat 
per cent. 



Water 
per cent. 



Ash 
per cent. 



Mature Leghorn hen 1 

Leghorn pullet (laying) 

Mature capon (Plymouth Rock) 
Egg (dry matter, minus shell) • 

Hen (dry matter) 

Egg (total dry matter) 

Fresh egg (11.4 fo shell) 



21.6 

21.2 
19.4 

49-8 
48.9 
38.5 
13.2 



17.0 
18.0 

33-9 
38.6 

38.5 

25-9 

8-9 



55-8 
55-4 
41.6 



65.7 



Discussion of the Table.— The analyses of the fowls include the 
whole body (bones, feathers, blood, etc.) and not the clean fowl 
of the market. Of the ash of eggs, 53.7 per cent, is phosphoric 
acid and 0.2 per cent, of that portion which is eaten, is phos- 
phoric acid. As in animals, a great deal of water is present in 
the body. Eggs are also made up largely of water. This fact 
indicates the necessity for furnishing fowls with a continual and 
fresh supply of pure water. The large amount of ash in eggs 
shows us that laying fowls require comparatively large amounts 
of this material for the construction of good eggs. Poultry kept 
in houses closely confined must be supplied with mineral con- 
stituents in some form. 

The table also shows that fowls contain considerable protein 
in their bodies and that eggs are largely composed of this com- 
pound. Often the food of poultry consists of the wastes from 
the kitchen and dairy and may sometimes be deficient in this 
nutrient for the welfare of laying and breeding fowls. 

Some of the principal feeds suitable for poultry will now be 
discussed. 

Corn. — This feed is found in many poultry rations and hens 
relish this grain. It is a fattening food and should not be fed 
alone. For laying hens it should be fed in limited quantities 
and some fowls like the general purpose and Asiatics, which 
easily fatten, will get so fat on this grain that they will not lay. 
The Mediterraneans (Leghorns and other egg breeds) are not 

1 Female more than one year old is called a hen. 
Female less than one year old is called a pullet. 
Male more than one year old is called a cock. 
Male less than one year old is called a cockerel. 
A castrated male chicken is called a capon. 



FEED AND CARE OF POUI/fRY 257 

prone to get fat and may consume more of it than the Asiatics 
without injuring their egg production. Corn may be fed in 
larger amounts in cold weather because of its heat producing 
power. Corn tends to give the yolk of eggs a yellow color. 
Corn is fed whole, cracked and as corn meal. 

Kaffir Corn is somewhat similar to corn in composition and 
should make up only a part of a laying lien's ration. This feed 
is very popular in certain sections and is found in many com- 
mercial poultry feeds. 

Oats contain sufficient protein to be of value for young fowls. 
Poultrymen favor heavy oats for feeding and declare that it is 
one of the best grains to feed alone when other feed is scarce. 

Rye is sometimes fed, but poultry do not seem to relish this 
grain. 

Wheat is especially desirable for poultry because it is rich in 
protein and ash and is valuable in grain mixtures. 

Barley is fed whole or ground and it is often used for fatten- 
ing. For laying hens barley, like corn, should only form a 
part of the ration. 

Buckwheat contains considerable carbohydrates and is a fav- 
orable fattening food when the price is reasonable. It forms 
fine white skin which is a good factor for market fowls. 

Millet Seed is often fed in poultry rations. It is somewhat 
similar in composition to oats and may be used in furnishing 
variety to the ration. It is not so fattening as barley or corn. 

Rice. — Broken rice is often fed and on account of its high con- 
tent of carbohydrates it is very fattening. 

Peas are good for furnishing protein to the ration. When the 
market value will permit, the feeding of this grain as a part 
of the ration is profitable. 

Sunflower Seeds are rich in protein and fat, but their nutritive 
ratio is narrow enough to consider them a protein feed. These 
seeds are found in most commercial hen feeds and should be 
desirable in furnishing variety. 

Flax Seeds are very rich in oil and a small amount in a ration 
'may be fed during the molting season when the oil tends to help 
in the shedding of feathers. It is perhaps more economical to 



258 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

eliminate this feed unless it can be purchased cheap. Unground 
it is not a satisfactory feed for poultry. 

Linseed Meal is high in protein and is very desirable in the 
molting season on account of the presence of oil which tends to 
loosen the feathers. It may be used to furnish protein to a 
ration. 

Cotton-Seed Meal is a dangerous poultry feed when fed in large 
quantities. It seems to produce sickness and if fed must be 
used in very limited amounts. It is perhaps safer to supply 
protein from some other source. It is understood that the 
United States Dept. of Agriculture have been endeavoring to 
eliminate the toxic or poisonous principle in cotton-seed meal and 
if they successfully accomplish this it will render this feed much 
safer and more valuable for a feed for poultry and farm animals 
generally. 

Gluten Feed and dried brewers' grains are used in some sec- 
tions to bring up the protein content of poultry rations and are 
very suitable. 

Wheat Screenings of good quality is sometimes an economical 
poultry feed. The quality of this material is variable and the 
poultryman should use his judgment in purchasing this by- 
product. 

Wheat Bran. — Bran is used in mashes and it gives bulk to a 
ration. It is rich in protein and mineral compounds which make 
it a valuable feed. 

Wheat Shorts and low grade flour are sometimes used in a dry 
mash and when the price is reasonable may be profitably utilized. 

Meat Scrap sometimes called beef scrap, is either fed alone or 
mixed with other feeds to form a dry mash. This animal food 
varies in protein but is always rich in this constituent. It also 
contains considerable fat and ash. Poultry are very fond of 
animal food and especially of meat scrap. 

Fresh Cut Bone. — Fresh or green cut bone is perhaps the best 
animal food for poultry. It is rich in protein, fat and ash. 
The elements that make up the ash are principally in the form 
of calcium phosphate which is used in building up a strong 
body and in producing eggs of good quality. It. is sometimes 



FEED AND CARE OF POULTRY 259 

difficult to grind fresh bone on the farm. This material should 
never be fed when in a spoiled condition as it causes sickness. 

Dry Cracked Bone is easier to keep in good condition than fresh 
cut bone and for this reason may be purchased at feed stores. 
It is not as valuable as fresh cut bone but nevertheless it is an 
exceedingly desirable poultry food. Bone in some form should 
be kept before poultry at all times to furnish the nutrients for 
making firm and fine flavored eggs. 

Meat and Bone Meal. — As the name implies this feed is com- 
posed of meat and very fine ground bone. This is a very desir- 
able poultry food as it furnishes a great deal of protein, fat and 
ash. 

Skim Milk is a splendid food for fattening or growing chick- 
ens, whether sweet or sour. It may be fed alone or with a mash. 
When utilized care must be taken to keep the feeding vessels 
thoroughly clean. 

Green Food. — Like animals, poultry do well when supplied 
green food. In the spring when tender grass is furnished, an 
increase in egg production is noticeable. Therefore it should 
be the aim of every poultryman to supply pasture or green grass 
or legumes to the poultry in summer and in the winter cut clover, 
alfalfa, and immature cured grasses are beneficial. Clover and 
alfalfa meal are found on our markets but the farmer should 
raise enough of these hays so that he will not be forced to buy 
them. Alfalfa and clover are better than grass hays because 
they run higher in protein and ash and are excellent for the 
needs of laying hens. The finer parts that are found about the 
barn may be saved for the poultry. The coarse stems are not 
generally consumed but so little of this material is required that 
what is left will not amount to much. Lettuce, cabbage and 
onions are also sometimes fed and poultry are very fond of 
these vegetables. Cabbage twice a week is sufficient and onions 
once in a while. If these feeds are fed continually they are 
liable to spoil the flavor of the eggs. 

Other Succulent Feed. — Roots such as potatoes, beets, etc., are 
excellent. They may be hand fed or stuck on nails about the 
yard or house. Silage is also beneficial and may be furnished 
two or three times a week. Apples when plentiful are splendid. 



260 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

The fresh vegetable wastes from the kitchen are relished by 
poultry and may be utilized advantageously in this way. Suc- 
culent food is laxative and too much therefore should not be 
supplied. 

Grit. — The hen grinds its food in the gizzard. In order that 
hens may grind food, grit in some form must be furnished them. 
When grit is lacking digestive troubles take place. Ground 
broken glass or mica crystal grit are needed even if sand is sup- 
plied. Shells do not take the place of grit. As soon as the 
stones in the gizzard become round they are passed off. 

Lime. — As the shell of eggs contain a great deal of lime it 
must be furnished poultry in some form easily assimilated. 
Ground oyster shells seem to furnish lime in a splendid form. 
Limestone is also used. Lime in some form should be before 
hens at all times. 

Charcoal should be accessible to hens continually. It absorbs 
objectionable gases and tends to keep the digestive system in 
good condition. 

Salt in small quantities is desirable. This mineral should not 
be supplied in large quantities. About 5 ounces to 100 lbs. of 
feed are considered safe. 

Exercise. — Most birds are naturally very active and require 
a great deal of exercise to keep the body in good health. Lay- 
ing hens and breeding cocks especially must have exercise. This 
can be provided in summer by allowing them liberty or by fur- 
nishing a yard. In winter the hens should be made to exercise 
to get their food. This may be accomplished by providing a 
heavy litter of straw and scattering the grain over it so that 
the hens will be forced to scratch for their food. 

Palatability of Feed. — Experiments have demonstrated that 
hens are not all alike in their fondness for certain food. Their 
tastes should be catered to in compounding rations and the best 
way to do this is to furnish variety. Musty, sour, or unclean 
food is not desirable for meat or egg production. 

Mash is fed wet or dry and experiments have shown that dry 
mash is the better. Advantages in feeding dry mash are ; the 
production of more fertile eggs, the feeding receptacles are easily 
kept clean and sanitary, and time is saved in furnishing food. 



SECTION XXXVI. 



STANDARDS AND RATIONS FOR POULTRY. 

Points to be Observed in Compounding Rations. — Rice in Read- 
ing Course for Farmers, No. 18, gives the following points to 
be observed in making rations for poultry: 

i. "It should be composed of foods every one of which the 
fowls like. 

2. "It should contain a sufficient quantity of digestible nu- 
trients to supply the needs of rapid growth and large produc- 
tion. 

3. "It should have enough bulk to enable the digestive secre- 
tions to act quickly upon it. 

4. "It should not contain an excess of indigestible fiber, which 
must be thrown off by the system, thus causing a waste of energy. 

5. "A certain portion of the feed should be of whole grain in 
order to provide muscular activity of the digestive organs. This 
is made necessary in grinding the grain. 

"Under certain conditions a quantity of the ration should be 
of soft ground food. This is for the purpose of providing 
quickly available nutrients to supply the immediate demands of 
rapid growth or heavy continuous egg yield. 

6. "It must provide a good variety of foods in which are in- 
cluded grain, green food, meat and mineral matter, in proper 
proportions. 

7. "The age of the fowl, the breed and kind of product which 
it is desired to produce, must be taken into consideration, as to 
whether the food is intended to grow muscle and bone, or to 
produce eggs, or to fatten. 

8. "The ration must provide two classes of food nutrients, the 
protein and carbohydrates, in such proportions that they will 
supply the daily need of the fowl's system; it must also provide 
sufficient digestible protein to repair the waste of tissue with 
new growth and to produce eggs, and provide the proper amount 
of digestible carbohydrate food to furnish heat, energy and lay 
by a little surplus fuel in the form of fat. 



262 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



9. "The ration must consist of foods which furnish the nu- 
trients at the lowest possible cost. 

10. ''The food in the ration must not have an injurious effect 
on the color or the flavor of the product. 

11. "It is not how much a fowl eats, but how much it can 
digest, that determines the value of the food. Various classes 
of animals differ in their power to digest the same kind of 
food. Foods also vary in their digestibility when used by the 
same animal. Unfortunately the proportion of each poultry 
food which fowls can ordinarily digest, has not yet been deter- 
mined, therefore we are obliged to use the standards of digesti- 
bility which are used in compounding rations for other animals." 

Poultry Standards — Per ico Pounds, Live Weight. 1 



Weight 
pounds 



Dry 
matter 



Carbohy- 
drates 



Nutritive 
ratio 



Maintenance 

Capons 9-12 

Hens 5-7 

Hens 3-5 

Hens in Fule Laying 

Hens 5-8 

Hens 3-5 

Chicks' Age 

First 2 weeks 

From 2-4 weeks — — 

From 4-6 weeks 

From 6-8 weeks 

From 8-10 weeks 

From 10-12 weeks 

Ducklings 

First 2 weeks 

From 2-4 weeks 

From 4-6 w r eeks 

From 6-8 weeks 

From 8-10 weeks 

From 10-15 weeks 



2-3 

2.7 

3-9 

3-3 

5-5 

10. 1 
9.6 
8.6 

7-4 
6.4 
5-4 

17.2 
17.0 

11. 2 
8.0 
7.0 
4.6 



0.06 

o. 10 
0.15 

0.20 
0.30 

0.50 
0.70 
0.60 
0.50 
0.50 
0.40 

1.60 
1.50 
0.80 
0.60 

0.50 
0.30 



0.30 
0.40 
0.50 

0.65 
1. 00 



2.00 
2.20 
2.00 
1.60 
1.20 
1. 00 

4.00 
4.10 
2.70 
1.70 
1.40 
0.90 



1.74 
2.00 

2-95 

2.25 
3-75 

7.20 
6.20 
5.60 
4.90 
4.40 
3-7o 

11.20 
10.10 
7.00 
5 20 
4.70 
3.20 



0.20 
0.20 
0.30 

0.20 
o.35 

0.40 

0.50 
0.40 
0.40 
0.30 
0.30 

1.40 
1.30 
0.70 
0.50 
0.40 
0.20 



i:7.5 
1:6.2 

1:7.4 

1:4.2 
1:4.6 

1:4.1 
i:3-4 
1=3-3 
i:3-7 

i:4-3 
1:4.4 



1:3 
1:3 
1:3 
1:3 

1:4 
1:4 



Use of the Table. — Rations for fowls may be figured in a simi- 
lar way as for farm animals by the use of Table 1 and this table 
of poultry standards. In making up rations for fowls, large 
amounts of feed may be mixed at one time, as it would not be 

1 Wheeler, in Jordan's, " The Feeding of Animals." 



Standard for 


100 1 


pounds 


3-3 


1 


0.20 




O.65 


!- 


2.25 




0.20 


J 



STANDARDS AND RATIONS FOR POULTRY 263 

practical to compound feed enough for a few days. Supposing 
we had enough laying hens, weighing 5-8 lbs., to make a total 
live weight of 200, 300, 400 or 500 lbs. Our standard for laying 
hens of this weight would be multiplied by 2, 3, 4, or 5 as the 
case would be and the feed balanced accordingly. Example ; 
the standard for laying hens weighing 5-8 lbs., is, dry matter 
3.3 lbs., ash 0.20 lb., digestible protein 0.65 lb., digestible car- 
bohydrates 2.25 lbs., and digestible fat 0.20 lb. Let us sup- 
pose all our laying hens total 300 lbs. live weight. Then to find 
the standard for 300 lbs. we must multiply the standard for 100 
lbs. by 3. 

Standard for 
300 pounds 

f 9.9 pounds dry matter 
0.60 pound ash 
X 3 = { 1.95 pounds digestible protein 

6.75 pounds digestible carbohydrates 
[ 0.60 pound digestible fat 

These standards are figured for daily requirements. 

Chick Rations. — Chicks should not be allowed to eat too much. 
Some of the methods of feeding chicks used in the Maine Ex- 
periment Station taken from Farmer's Bui. 357, follow : 

1. "Infertile eggs are boiled for a half an hour and then ground 
in an ordinary meat chopper, shells included, and mixed with 
about six times their bulk of rolled oats, by rubbing both to- 
gether. This mixture is fed for two or three days, until the 
chicks have learned how to eat. It is fed with chick grit, on 
the brooder floor, on short cut clover or chaff. 

"About the third day the chicks are fed a mixture of hard, 
fine broken grains, as soon as they can see to eat in the morn- 
ing. The mixture is : 

Parts 

by 

weight 

Ci acked wheat 15 

Pinhead oats (granulated oatmeal) to 

Fine screened cracked corn 15 

Fine cracked peas 3 

Broken rice 2 

Chick grit 5 

Fine charcoal (chick size) 2 



264 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

"It is fed on the litter, care being taken to limit the quantity, 
so they shall be hungry at 9 a. m. at which time the rolled 
oats and egg mixture is fed in tin plates with low rims. The 
feed is kept before them for five minutes. At 12.30 the hard 
grain mixture is fed again, as in the morning, and at 4.30 or 5 
p. m. they are fed all they will eat in a half an hour of the rolled 
oats and egg mixture. Sharp grit, fine charcoal, and clean water 
are always before the chicks." 

When the chicks are about 3 weeks old the Maine Experiment 
Station displaces the rolled oats and egg mixture with the fol- 
lowing : 

Parts 

by 
weight 

Wheat bran 2 

Corn meal 4 

Middlings or red dog flour 2 

Linseed meal • 1 

Screened beef scrap 2 

This mixture is slightly moistened with water before feeding. 

2. Another method employed by the Maine Experiment Sta- 
tion is to supply fine beef scrap very early in the morning instead 
of boiled eggs, and feed dry. At 9 o'clock the following is fed : 

Parts 

by 
weight 

Rolled oats • • • 2 

Wheat bran 2 

Corn meal 2 

Linseed meal 72. 

Screened beef scrap 1 

The same order of feeding as in the first method is followed. 

The Kansas Experiment Station, Bui. 164, uses the following 
method : 

"When a chick is newly hatched, it is allowed to dry off in 
the incubator and then put into the brooder which has been 
heated to 100 degrees. When 48-60 hours old the chicks are 
fed some boiled, tested-out eggs. Following this, they have 
placed before them in a shallow pan a dry mash made as fol- 
lows : 



STANDARDS AND RATIONS FOR POULTRY 265 

2 pounds corn meal 
2 pounds shorts 
2 pounds bran 
2 pounds beef scrap 
y 2 pound charcoal 

"This is kept before them practically all the time, from the 
time they are large enough to eat it until they have obtained a 
good growth. 

"Scattered in the litter, five times daily thereafter, is a grain 
mixture as follows : 

2 pounds corn chop (sifted) 
a pounds cracked Kaffir corn 
2 pounds cracked wheat 

1 pound millet 

"Before them at all times are pans of fresh water and clean 
grit. Absolute cleanliness and sanitation are ever present. 

"When the chicks are large enough to eat whole grain, the 
cracked is taken away. If the chicks are early hatched and have 
attained a good growth early in the summer the beef scrap and 
possibly all the mash should be cut out of the ration. This pre- 
vents premature development with early chicks and consequent 
fall molting. The ration above mentioned produced 3 lb. White 
Plymouth Rock cockerels in 10 weeks from date of hatch." 

Fattening Rations. — Experiments at the Maine Experiment 
Station, given in Farmers' Bui. 357, state that the following 
grain mixture was used in fattening cockerels and was fed wet 
with good success : 

100 pounds corn meal 
100 pounds wheat middlings 
40 pounds meat meal 

The wetting of the above mixture with skim milk improved its 
efficiency for fattening. 

The following fattening ration has been successfully used in 
preparing cockerels for market by the Kansas Experiment Sta- 
tion : 

2 pounds ground oats 
2 pounds shorts 

2 pounds corn meal 
1 pound beef scrap 
18 



266 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Pearl in Farmers' Bui. 357, says: "An experiment with 150 
birds when they were four months old showed that they re- 
quired 4.9 lbs. of grain to produce 1 pound of gain, while birds 
from the same stock, when they were six months old, required 
7.4 lbs. of grain to produce 1 pound of gain." He further con- 
cludes that : 

1. "As great gains are made just as cheaply and more easily 
when the chickens are put into small houses and yards as when 
they are fed in small lots in lattice coops just large enough to 
hold them. 

2. "Four weeks is about the limit of profitable feeding, both 
individually and in flocks. 

3. "Chickens gain faster while young. Birds that are from 
150-175 days old have uniformly given comparatively small gains. 

4. "The practice of successful poultrymen selling chickens at 
the earliest marketable age is well founded. 

"The experiments clearly indicate that it is profitable to fatten 
chickens in cheaply constructed sheds or in large coops with 
small runs for about four weeks and then send them to market 
dressed. In quality the well covered, soft fleshed chickens are 
so much superior to the same birds not specially prepared that 
the former will be sought for at a higher price. The dairy 
farmer is particularly well prepared to carry on this work, as he 
has the skim milk which these experiments show to be of so 
great importance in obtaining cheap rapid growth and superior 
quality of flesh." 

Laying Rations. — According to Farmers' Bui. 357, the meth- 
od followed at the Maine Experiment Station in feeding laying 
hens is as follows : 

"Early in the morning for each 100 hens (Plymouth Rocks), 
4 quarts of whole corn are scattered on the litter, which is 6 to 
8 inches deep on the floor. This is not mixed into the litter, for 
the straw is dry and light, and enough of the grain is hidden 
so the birds commence scratching for it almost immediately. 
At 10 o'clock they are fed in the same way, 2 quarts of wheat 
and 2 quarts of oats. This is all the regular feeding that is 
done. 



STANDARDS AND RATIONS FOR POULTRY 267 

"Besides the dry whole grain a dry mash is kept always be- 
fore the birds. Along one side of the room is the feed trough 
with its slatted front, and in it is kept a supply of dry meals 
mixed together. This dry meal mixture or mash has the fol- 
lowing composition : 

Parts 

by 
weight 

Wheat bran 2 

Corn meal 1 

Middlings 1 

Gluten meal or dried brewers' grains 1 

Linseed meal 1 

Beef scrap 1 

"The dry meal mixture is constantly within reach of all the 
birds and they help themselves at will. 

"Oyster shell, dry cracked bone, grit, and charcoal are kept 
in slatted troughs, and are accessible at all times. A moderate 
supply of mangolds and plenty of clean water are furnished. 
About 5 lbs. of clover hay cut into y 2 inch lengths is fed dry 
daily to each ioo birds in winter. 

"The average amounts of the materials eaten by each hen dur- 
ing the year are about as follows : 

Pounds 

Grain and the meal mixture 90.0 

Oyster shell 4.0 

Dry cracked bone 2.4 

Grit 2.0 

Charcoal 2.4 

Clover • • 10.0 

The following ration has been used by the Kansas Experiment 
Station, Bui. 164, in feeding White Leghorns and White Ply- 
mouth Rocks : 

Grain Mash 

10 pounds wheat 6 pounds shorts 

10 pounds corn 3 pounds bran 

5 pounds oats 6 pounds corn meal 

5 pounds beef scrap 
I pound alfalfa meal 

"Between February i, 1909, and November 1, 1909, one White 
Plymouth Rock produced 201 eggs and another 196 eggs, at a 



268 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

cost for feed of 90 cents each. The Leghorns averaged 166. 1 
eggs for the same nine months at a slightly less cost. 

"The above ration is best suited to fowls which are confined 
and have no chance to obtain food on the range. A very prac- 
tical way to feed it, is to put 25 lbs. of the grain in a bucket 
and 21 lbs. of the mash in a hopper. The feed in these two ves- 
sels should disappear at the same time. Fowls will naturally 
eat more grain than they will the dry mash, so it is sometimes 
necessary to cut down on the grain in order to make them con- 
sume the mash. The grain should be fed scattered in the litter." 



SECTION XXXVII. 



THE IMPORTANCE OF RAISING LIVE-STOCK AND THE FERTI- 
LIZER CONSTITUENTS IN FEEDS. 

Farm Crops Have a Double Value. — Nitrogen, phosphorus and 
potassium are the elements which are generally present in small 
amounts in the soil and often become deficient when farm crops 
are sold. The other elements used by plants are usually found 
in sufficient quantities so that we need not consider them, ex- 
cept occasionally calcium. The fertility that is taken away 
from the soil in the form of crops may best be restored by 
feeding these crops to live-stock and applying the manure to the 
soil. It should be understood that when farm crops are sold the 
fertilizing value is lost and the price received represents only 
the feeding value. 

Effects of Farm Manure. — The chemical composition of farm 
manure is not a true indication of its value. It serves to im- 
prove the texture and condition of the soil. It makes the plant 
food that is stored in the soil available. When manure is put 
upon the land it decomposes very rapidly on account of its al- 
ready partially decayed condition and fermentation sets in and 
acids are formed which act upon unavailable plant food and 
renders it available. During the process of decay humus is 
formed which has a tendency of making heavy soils (like clay 
soils) loose, and light sandy soils more binding. It increases 
soil warmth and it renders the moisture conditions of the soil 
more satisfactory. 

The Fertilizing" Value of manure depends upon the species of 
animal, age of animal, kind of feed, bedding employed, and care 
in husbanding. Highly nitrogenous feeds as cotton-seed meal, 
linseed meal, etc. produce a more valuable manure than coarser 
feeds. 

Lasting 1 Qualities of Farm Manure. — Manure is one of the most 
efficient fertilizers for the farmer to use. It has wonderful last- 
ing qualities ; one good application will last for many years. 
The Rothamstead Experiment Station of England has made 
valuable experiments with manure as a fertilizer on grass and 



270 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



barley to show its almost permanent effect. A plot of grass 
land received 14 tons of farm manure per acre for 8 years and 
was then left unmanured. For the two years following the dis- 
continuance of manure the crop was double that of the un- 
manured plot; yet the yield has slowly declined from year to 
year but has averaged 15 per cent, more than the unmanured 
plot. The barley experiment is as follows : The first plot re- 
ceived an application of 14 tons of farm manure per acre for 
20 years (1852-71) and since that time has been left unmanured. 
Another plot has been left unmanured during the entire period 
since 1852. The yield on the first plot for twenty years after 
the application of manure was discontinued, was 30 bushels 
per acre per year, while the unmanured plot where nothing was 
applied gave an average yield of 13 bushels per acre per year. 
Amount of Manure Voided by Animals. — It is estimated by 
Heiden that for every 100 lbs. of dry matter fed there are, 
210 pounds of fresh manure voided by the horse, 
380 pounds of fresh manure voided by the cow, and 
180 pounds of fresh manure voided by the sheep. 

Snyder 1 estimates that a well fed horse will produce about 50 
lbs. of manure per day of which one quarter will be urine. A 
horse will produce about 6 tons of manure per year in the stable. 
A milch cow will produce from 60-70 lbs. of total manure of 
which 20-30 lbs. are liquid. He estimates that a well fed cow 
will produce about 80 lbs. of manure per day including absorbents. 

Composition of Manure.— The following table gives the compo- 
sition of solid and liquid manure from some farm animals: 





Water 


Nitrogen 


Phosphoric acid 


Potash 


Lime 2 




Solids 
percent. 


Liquids 
per cent. 


Solids 
per cent. 


Liquids 
per cent. 


Solids 
per cent. 


Liquids 
per cent. 


Solids 
per cent. 


Total 
per cent. 


Cows .... 
Horses . . 

Pigs 

Sheep • • • 


76. 
84. 
80. 
58. 


89. 
92. 

97- 
86.5 


O.50 
O.30 
O.60 

0.75 


I.20 
O.86 
0.80 
I.40 


o.35 
0.25 

0.45 
0.60 


O.I2 
0.05 


0.30 
O. IO 
O.50 
030 


0.31 
0.21 
O.08 
0.33 


The a 

1 "Soils 

2 Appro: 


bove t; 

and Ferti 
dmate. 


ible sh 

lizers." 


ows th 


at the 


liquid 


portion 


is ric 


hest in 



IMPORTANCE OF RAISING UVE-STOCK 27 1 

nitrogen and this fact should impress one with the necessity of 
absorbing and saving the urine. The phosphoric acid is only 
present in traces in the urine of horses and cattle but is quite 
considerable in the liquid portions from sheep and swine. 

Value of Manure. — The following are average values of farm 
manures when nitrogen is valued at 15 cents a pound, phosphoric 
acid at 7 cents and potash at 4^/2 cents i 1 

Value 
per ton 

Morse $ 2.49 

Cow 2.43 

Sheep 4.25 

Pig 320 

Continued Cropping Exhausts the Soil. — In the New England 
States the continual selling of farm crops has exhausted the soil 
on many of the farms of a great deal of its fertility. In some 
localities, 150-200 lbs. of commercial fertilizer formerly pro- 
duced as good returns as 1000- 1200 lbs. do now. Because of the 
continual selling of farm crops without maintaining soil fertility, 
we have many abandoned farms in the older sections of this 
country. 

Now in order to get this valuable fertilizer, farm manure, to 
keep up the fertility of the soil, we must raise live-stock or pur- 
chase manure. 

If live-stock are kept on the farm and fed the farm products, 
80-90 per cent, of the fertilizer value of the crops may be saved 
and put back on the land and the full feed value may be realized. 

Idle Lands may he Made Profitable. — The feeding of live-stock 
makes it profitable to pasture lands that are too poor for the 
growing of the ordinary cultivated crops. In this way the land 
that is ordinarily idle may be utilized. 

Reducing Freight Charges. — Live-stock create a market for 
selling farm crops in a more condensed form. It takes about 
7-12 lbs. of farm products to produce a pound of gain and by 
feeding the farm products to live-stock the weight of these prod- 
ucts is reduced 1/7 to 1/12, which is a great saving in the 
freight charges of marketing. 

1 Roberts, "The Fertility of the Land." 



2/2 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 

A Market for Cheap and Coarse Feed Stuffs.— Around every 
farm there are many coarse farm products and other materials 
which would ordinarily be wasted if live-stock are not kept. 
Corn stover, straw, damaged and shrunken grain, and other 
similar farm products do not bring much on the market but may 
be utilized to good advantage in feeding stock. Often certain 




Fig. 23.— Hay should be raised at home. 

hays hardly pay the cost of marketing and may be profitably used 
in such cases for feeding live-stock. 

Growing of Legumes. — When live-stock are kept on the farm 
the growing of legumes is very profitable as they increase the 
soil fertility and serve as cheap feed for furnishing the protein 
so necessary in animal production. Many of the leguminous 
crops will not bring their real value when sold but when utilized 
for feeding live-stock become very profitable crops for the farmer 
to raise. 



IMPORTANCE OF RAISING LIVE-STOCK 273 

Roots and Tubers. — In the South roots as mangels and turnips 
may often be profitably raised during the winter when the land 
is ordinarily idle. These crops do not interfere with the raising 
of cotton, corn, etc., because they may be harvested in time to 
plant the summer crops. When the market prices for Irish and 
sweet potatoes are low these crops may be fed to live-stock. 

Labor. — The raising of live-stock furnishes employment for the 
hands throughout the year. By being able to keep labor the year 
round is usually more satisfactory and cheaper than to employ 
hands for a part of the year. 

Mixed Husbandry the Most Profitable. — Because of the main- 
taining and often increasing of soil fertility, and the utilization 
of cheap feeds that would ordinarily be thrown away, it is 
readily seen that the raising of live-stock in conjunction with 
general farm crops is perhaps the most profitable. We have only 
to look to the older farming sections to learn that mixed hus- 
bandry has proved to be the most profitable. Of course on new 
lands the farmer often realizes a good profit by raising single 
crops, but such lands invariably deteriorate and it is only a ques- 
tion of time when such single crop farming will have to be 
abandoned. 

Raise Products at Home. — The farmer of to-day should realize 
the economy of raising animal products and feed stuffs for home 
consumption. It seems strange to know that in some sections, 
where single crop farming is practiced, that farmers purchase a 
great deal of food from the merchant, often at exorbitant prices, 
that could be easily and cheaply raised at home. Some of these 
products that are purchased are, butter, milk, cheese, eggs, meat, 
vegetables, fruits, feed stuffs for live-stock, and similar products. 
The farmer should always aim to have something to sell and not 
be forced to continually buy if he wishes to be prosperous and 
happy. Some products of course must be purchased but any- 
thing that the farm will produce should be grown at home. 

The following table, the work of American and foreign in- 
vestigators will acquaint the student with the fertilizer constit- 
uents in feed stuffs : 



2/4 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



Fertilizing Constituents in American Feed Stuffs 



Name of feed 



Water 
per cent 



Ash 
per cent 



Nitrogen 
per cent 



Phosphoric 

acid 
per cent 



Potassium 

oxide 
per cent. 



Concentrates 

Barley 

Beet pulp (dried ) 

Brewers' grains (dried ) . . . 
Brewers' grains (wet) 

Broom corn seed 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat middlings .... 

Corn (grain ) 

Corn bran 

Corn and cob meal 

Cotton-seed ( raw ) 

Cotton-seed meal 

Cowpea seed 

Distillers' dried grains 

Flax-seed 

Flour (dark feeding ) ■ 

Flour (high grade) 

Flour ( low grade ) 

Germ meal 

Gluten meal 

Gluten feed 

Grano-gluten 

Hominy chops 

Hominy meal 

Horse bean 

Linseed meal (old process) 
Linseed meal (new process 

Malt sprouts 

Millet seed 

Molasses ( beet ) 

Molasses (cane, blackstrap 

Oats 

Oat dust 

Oat feed (shorts) 

Oat meal 

Peanut meal 

Peas 

Rape-seed meal 

Rice (clean) 

Rice bran (impure) 

Rice polish 

Rye 

Rye bran 

Rye shorts 

Soja ( soy ) bean 

Sorghum seed 

Sunflower seed 

Sunflower seed cake 



14.30 

8.00 

6.98 

75-oi 

14.10 

14.10 

14.70 

10.88 

9.10 

8.96 

10.30 

9.90 

14.80 

8.00 

9.20 

9.70 

12.20 

12.00 

8. 10 

8-59 

8.50 

5.80 

11. 10 

11.00 

11.30 

8.8S 

7-77 

10.38 

14.00 

20.80 

22.40 

11.00 

6.50 

7.70 

7.90 

10.70 

10.50 

10.00 

12.80 

9.90 

10.30 

11.60 

11.60 

9-30 
10.80 
12.80 

8.60 

10.80 



2.48 
5.40 
6.15 
1. 00 
3-40 
2.00 
1.40 

i-53 
1.30 

1.50 
3-5o 
6.82 
3.20 
1.70 
4.20 

4-3° 
0.60 
2.00 
1.30 

0/73 
1.70 
2.80 
2.50 
2.50 
3.80 
6.08 

5-37 
5-72 
3-3° 

10.60 
9-3° 
3.00 
6.90 
3- 7o 
2.00 
4.90 
2.60 
7.90 
0.70 

13.00 
3-5o 
1.90 
4.60 
5-9o 
4.70 
2.10 
2.60 
6.70 



i-5i 
1.60 

3-°5 
0.89 
1.63 
1.44 
i.;8 
1.82 
1.63 
1. 41 

3-13 
6.64 

3-33 
4-5o 
3.61 
3.18 
1.S9 
2.89 
2.65 
5-03 
3-84 
4.98 
1.63 
1.66 
4.07 
5-43 
5.78 

3-55 
2.04 
1.46 
0.47 
2.06 
2. 16 
1.72 
2-35 
7-56 
3.08 
4.96 
1.08 
0.71 
1.97 
1.76 
2.32 
1.84 

5-3° 
1.48 

2.28 
5-55 



0.91 



0.48 
1.47 
i-55 
0.05 

0.21 

o.34 
0.40 
0.68 
0.47 
1.17 
1.79 

0.31 
1.03 
1.09 
0.15 

o.35 
0.50 
0.05 
0.03 
0.15 
0.49 
0.78 
1.29 
1-37 
1-39 
1.63 
0.36 
5.63 
3-7o 
0.62 

o.53 

1.50 
0.99 
1.30 
0.09 
0.24 
0.71 

o.54 
1.40 
0.81 
1.99 
0.42 
0.56 
1. 17 



IMPORTANCE OF RAISING LIVE-STOCK 



275 



Fertilizing Constituents in American Feed Stuffs. — {Continued) 



Name of feed 



Water 


Ash 


Nitrogen 


per cent. 


per cent. 


per cent. 


IO.50 


I.80 


2.36 


II.90 


6.30 


2.67 


I2.IO 


3-30 


2.63 


II.60 


2.90 


2.44 


II.80 


4.60 


2.82 


13.20 


2.20 


O.49 


IO.70 


I.40 


O.50 


II. IO 


2.80 


O.69 


7-3° 


6.60 


O.52 


9.00 


18.30 


O.58 


75-3C 


2.25 


O.72 


75.OO 


I.05 


O.32 


85.OO 


I.20 


O.50 


81.80 


1.47 


O.44 


80.00 


1-45 


0.53 


82.50 


1.42 


0.43 


81.OO 





O.56 


79.IO 


1.40 


O.28 


76.OO 


2.40 


O.79 


78.81 


1.47 


O.27 


71.60 


1-93 


I-I3 


84.20 


■ 


0.68 


74.S5 


2.84 


o.54 


85.35 





0.44 


83-I5 


0.96 


0.51 


62.58 


1.20 


0.61 


7I.IO 


1.70 


o.39 


80.00 


1. 10 


o.53 


74.00 





0.26 


79.OO 


2.80 


0.42 


83-36 


i-3i 


0.49 


80.00 


1.80 


o.43 


73-14 


2.09 


o.43 


63.12 


3-27 


0.91 


75.20 


2.60 


0.47 


84.36 


2-45 


0.42 


85.00 





o.34 


76.60 


2.10 


o-33 


82.59 


1.82 


0.41 


75- to 


2.60 


0.29 


79.40 


1. 10 


0.23 


66.90 


2.15 


0.48 . 


84.50 


1.94 


o.59 


8.40 


7.40 


2.19 



Phosphoric 

acid 

per cent 



Potassium 

oxide 
per cent. 



Concentrates — ( Contin ued ) 

Wheat (grain) 

Wheat bran 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat screenings 

Wheat shorts 

Waste Products (low grade) 

Buckwheat hulls 

Corn cob 

Cotton-seed hulls 

Oat hulls 

Rice hulls 

Green Fodders 

Alfalfa 

Apple pomace silage 

Canada field pea 

Clover ( alsike ) 

Clover (red ) 

Clover (scarlet) 

Clover (white) 

Corn silage 

Corn and soy bean silage 

Cowpea 

Flat pea 

Horse bean 

Italian rye grass 

Lupine (white ) 

Lupine (yellow) 

Millet (common) 

Millet (Hungarian grass) 

Millet (Japanese) 

Millet (silage) 

Millet and soy bean silage. . • 

Oat fodder 

Oats and vetch ( 1-1 ) 

Orchard grass 

Pasture grasses (mixed) 

Perennial rye grass 

Prickly comfrey 

Rape .-• 

Rye fodder 

Serradella 

Soja (soy) beau 

Sorghum fodder 

Timothy 

Vetch (common ) 

Hay and Dry Coarse Fod 
ders 

Alfalfa 



0.79 
2.89 

o.95 
1. 17 

i-35 

0.07 
0.06 
0.25 
0.24 
0.17 

0.13 
0.15 
0.12 
o. 11 
0.13 
0.13 
0.20 

O.I I 

0.42 

O.IO 

0.18 
0.33 

0.29 

0.35 

O. II 

0.19 
o. 16 
0.20 

0.14 

O. II 

0.13 

0.14 
0.16 

0.23 
0.28 

O. II 
O.IO 

0.15 

0.14 

0.15 

0.09 
0.26 

1. 19 



0.51 



0.50 
1. 61 

0.63 

0.84 

0.59 

0.52 

0.60 
1.02 

0.52 

0.14 

0.56 

0.40 

0.38 

0.20 
0.46 
0.49 

0.24 

037 
0.44 
0.31 
0.58 

i-37 
1. 14 
J.73 
0.15 
0.41 

o.55 
o-34 
0.62 

0.44 
0.38 
0.30 
0.76 

o.75 
1. 10 

o.75 
0.78 

o.73 
0.42 

o.53 
0.23 
0.76 
0.70 



276 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 
Fertilizing Constituents in American Feed Stuffs. — {Continued) 



Name of feed 



Water 
per cent. 



Ash 
per cent 



Nitrogen 
per cent 



Phosphoric Potassium 

acid oxide 

per cent. per cent. 



Hay and Dry Coarse Fod 
ders — (Continued) 

Branch grass 

Broom corn stalks (waste) • • 

Blue melilot 

Carrot tops ( dry ) 

Clover (alsike) 

Clover ( Bokhara) 

Clover ( crimson ) 

Clover (mammoth red) 

Clover (red) 

Clover ( white ) 

Corn fodder (with ears) 

Corn fodder (without ears) . 

English hay (mixed grasses) 

Fox grass 

Italian rye grass 

Japanese buckwheat 

Kentucky blue grass 

Meadow fescue grass 

Meadow foxtail 

Millet ( common ) ■ 

Millet (Hungarian grass) 

Millet (Japanese) ■ 

Mixed grasses 

Oat fodder 

Orchard grass 

Oxeye daisy 

Perennial rye grass 

Red top 

Rowen ( mixed ) 

Sainfoin 

Serradella 

Spanish moss 

Sov bean (whole plant) 

Sulla 

Tall meadow oat grass 

Teosinte 

Timothy 

Vetch and oats ( 1-1 ) 

White daisy 

Straw 

Barley straw 

Barley chaff 

Millet straw 

Oac straw 

Rye straw 

Soja bean 



16.00 

10.00 

8.22 

9.76 

9-94 

7-43 

9.60 

15.00 

15.00 

7-8 5 
9. 12 
14.00 
16.00 
8.71 
5-72 

10.35 
8.89 

15-35 

9-75 

7-69 

10.45 

11.99 

15.00 

8.84 

9-65 

9-i3 

7.71 

16.60 

12.17 

7-39 
15.00 
11.30 

9-39 
15-35 

6.06 
13.20 
15.00 
10.30 

14.20 
13-08 
15.00 
9.20 
7.10 
10. 10 



6.40 



5-8o 



1.06 
0.87 
1.92 

3- '13 
2.34 
1.98 
2.05 
2. 14 
2.07 

2-75 
1.76 

1.04 

1 34 

1. 18 
1.19 
1.63 

1. 19 
099 

i-54 
1.28 
1.20 
1.1 1 
1. 41 
1.90 

i-3i 
028 
1.23 

1-15 

r.61 
2.63 
2.70 
o.6r 
2.32 
2.46 
1.16 
1.46 
1.26 
1.80 
0.26 



r-3i 

1. 01 
0.68 
0.62 
0.46 
1-75 



0.19 

0.47 

o.54 
0.61 
0.67 
0.56 
0.40 
0.52 
0.48 
0.52 
o-54 
0.29 
0.32 
o. iS 
056 
0.85 
0.40 
0.40 
0.44 
0.49 

o.35 
0.40 
0.27 
0.65 
0.41 

o.44 
0.56 
0.36 

o.43 
0.76 

0.78 
0.07 
0.67 

o.45 
032 

o.55 
o.53 
0.60 
0.41 

0.30 

0.27 
0.18 
0.20 
0.28 
0.40 



0.87 
1.87 
2.80 
4.S8 
2.23 
1.83 

I-3 1 
1.80 
2.20 
1. 81 
0.89 
1.40 
1. 61 

o-95 

1.27 

3-3 2 
1-57 
2.10 
1.99 
1.69 
1.30 
1.22 

i-55 
1.90 
1.S8 
1-25 
i-55 
1.02 

1.49 
2.02 
0.65 
0.56 
1.08 
2.09 
1.72 
3- 7o 
0.90 
1.27 
1.18 



2.09 
0.99 

'■73 
1.24 
0.79 

I. i2 



IMPORTANCE OE RAISING LIVE-STOCK 



277 



Fertilizing Constituents in American Feed Stuffs. — {Continued') 



Name of feci 



Straw — (Continued) 

Wheat straw 

Wheat chaff 

Roots, Tubers, Etc. 

Artichoke 

Beet ( mangel ) 

Beet (red) 

Beet (sugar) 

Beet (yellow fodder) . . 

Carrot 

Mangold 

Parsnip 

Potato ( Irish ) 

Radish (Japanese) .... 

Rutabaga 

Turnip (flat) 

Dairy Products 

Butter 

Buttermilk 

Colostrum (cows' milk) 

Skim milk (centrifugal 

Skim milk (gravity) . . 

Whev 

Whole milk 

Miscellaneous 

Apples 

Cabbage 

Dried blood 

Dried fish 

Meat scrap 

Pumpkin \ garden ) . . . . 

Spurry 

Sugar beet leaves 



Water 
per cent 



9.60 

14.30 

78.00 

90.9 

88.50 

86.50 

89.00 

88.60 

88.00 

86.30 

78.90 

93.OO 

88.60 

90.50 



12.50 
90.IO 
74.60 
90.60 
90.40 
93.80 
87.20 

78.OO 
90.50 
8.50 
10.80 
IO.70 
86.80 
75.60 
88.00 



Ash 
per cent 



Nitrogen 
per cent. 



4.20 
9.20 

I. OO 
I. IO 
1.00 
0.90 

1.20 

0.70 
1.00 

1.20 

0.80 



0.70 

1.50 

0.70 
0.70 
0.40 
0.60 



1.40 

4.70 

29.20 
4.10 
0.90 
4.00 
2.40 



o-59 
0.79 

0.26 
0.19 
0.24 
0.22 
0.23 
0.15 
0.15 
0.18 
0.21 
0.08 
0.19 
0.18 



0.19 
0.48 
2.82 
0.56 
0.56 
0.15 
o.53 

0.12 
0.3S 

I3-50 
7-75 

H-39 
0.11 
0.38 
0.41 



Phosphoric 

acid 

per cent. 



O.I2 

O.70 

O.14 
O.09 
O.09 
O. IO 
O.I I 

0.09 
0.14 
0.20 
0.07 

0.05 

O.I2 
o. IO 



0.17 

0.66 

0.20 

0.20 
0.14 
0.19 

O.OI 
O. II 

1-35 
12.00 
0.70 
0.16 
0.25 
0.15 



Potassium 

oxide 
per cent. 



0.5I 
0.42 

0.47 
O.38 

O.44 
O.48 
0.56 
0.51 

o.34 
0.44 
0.29 
O.40 
0.49 
0.39 



0.16 

O. II 

0. 19 
o. 19 

0.18 
0.18 

0.17 

0.43 
0.77 

0.20 
0.10 
0.09 

0.59 

0.62 



Suggestion : Have the students figure the values of the 
fertilizer constituents in one ton of several feed stuffs, valuing 
nitrogen at 17 cents a pound, and phosphoric acid and potash at 
5 cents a pound. Have them observe the amount of fertility 
removed from an acre of land by some of the popular crops 
grown in the locality. Assume a few common rations fed to 
different classes of live-stock in the locality and let the students 
calculate the yearly values of the manure obtained. 



SECTION XXXVIII. 



CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR STOCK FARMS. 

All over this country there are certain farmers who manage 
their lands better than others and thus make greater profits. 
These farmers are not plentiful but are scattered about and give 
us practical examples of farming systems best adapted to their 
localities. The cropping systems for stock farms vary of course 
with the nature of stock, nature of the crops grown, locality 
of the farm, nature of the land, size of the farm, price of labor, 
results desired, etc. 

Cropping systems are well illustrated by Spillman in the 1907 
Year-book of the United States Dept. of Agriculture, from which 
the following is taken : 

"Rotation Defined. — A rotation of crops is a succession of 
crops, one following another on the same land. If these crops 
continually recur in a fixed order, the rotation is a definite one. 
If they recur at regular intervals, the rotation is said to be a 
fixed rotation. A definite rotation may not be a fixed rotation; 
for example, in many parts of the country it is customary to leave 
grass lands down from three to six or more years, the length of 
time depending on the condition of the sod, the supply of labor, 
feed requirements of stock, etc. When the sod is plowed up, 
the land is planted in corn, then wheat is sown, and grass fol- 
lows. This rotation is perfectly definite as to the crops grown 
and the order in which these crops follow each other, but it is 
not fixed as to the number of years it occupies. 

"Fixed rotations are not objectionable on farms that grow 
crops for sale, provided, of course, the crops are such as bring 
a satisfactory profit and proper measures are taken to conserve 
the fertility of the soil. We shall later see also that fixed 
rotations are practically necessary on certain types of stock 
farms where one or more of the crops in the rotation are used 
for pasture, and where, consequently, the fields must be separate- 
ly fenced. But a single fixed rotation practically never produces 
crops in the needed proportions on the stock farm. Hence, the 
stockman who runs a single fixed rotation covering his whole 



CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR STOCK FARMS 279 

farm practically always has a surplus of some kinds of feed or a 
shortage of others. For this reason he is compelled to keep 
less stock than his farm would support with a properly planned 
cropping system unless he is in a position to buy feed that may 
be lacking. 

"Examples of Simple and Complex Rotations. — While a single 
fixed rotation produces crops in fixed proportions, except for 
variations in yield, and is thus inflexible, two rotations can 
nearly always be so arranged as to produce any given crops in 
any desired proportion. Suppose, for instance, that a dairy 
farmer desires to produce annually 15 acres of corn for silage, 
20 acres of corn for grain, 25 acres of oats for grain, and 60 
acres of hay. He can do this by arranging two three-year 
rotations as follows : 

A System of Two Simple Rotations on a Dairy Farm 

First series Second series 

First year .... 35 acres corn First year . • 5 acres pea and oat hay 

o i f 25 acres oats Second year. 5 acres timothy and 

y \ 10 acres pea and oat hay clover hay 

Third year .. 35 acres timothy and Third year... 5 acres timothy and 
clover clover hay 

"This gives the exact acreage of each crop desired. If, in the 
above cropping system, the area of oats exceeds that of corn, the 
requirements being, say, 20 acres of corn, 25 acres of oats, and 
60 acres of hay, we can arrange the rotations as follows : 
A Second System of Two Simple Rotations on a Dairy Farm. 

First series Second series 

w . , f 2oacres incorn for First year 10 acres in peas 

First year.... grain and oats for hay 

( 5 acres in a hay crop J 

Second year 25 acres in oats for Second year 10 acres in timothy 

grain and clover for hay 

Third year 25 acres in timothy Third year 10 acres in timothy 

and clover for hay and clover for hay 

"The general plan in the foregoing scheme of two rotations 
is to fill in the vacancies of the first and more usual rotation by 
putting in some other crop which is grown mainly in the second 
rotation. The scheme is therefore an elastic one, well suited 



280 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

especially to dairy farms on which the pasture is provided out- 
side of the regular rotations. 

"There is always a way of planning a single complex rotation 
which has the same elasticity as the two-rotation systems before 
outlined and which is even better than the two-rotation system on 
most farms. The two systems given before may be arranged as 
follows : 

Combination of the Foregoing Two-Rotation Systems into 
Single Complex Rotations 

First system Second system 

f xk acres in corn for f 

| JJ ■ \ 20 acres in corn 

First year- • • -j ° • -, First year . . < 15 acres in peas and 

' 5 acres in peas and J } ° , c f 

. c , F oats for hay 

[ oats for hay [ J 

[ 25 acres in oats for f 

! grain _ j 2 _ acreg ifl Qats 

Second year <^ IO ac ^ es f m , peas ancl Second year { 10 acres in timothy 
J oats tor Hay and clover for hay 

5 acres in timothy and J 

[ clover for hay ^ 

Third year.- 40 acres in timothy and Third year.. 35 acres in timothy and 
clover for hay clover for hay 

"The first of these complex rotations gives the same acreage 
of each crop as the first set of two rotations previously given, 
and the second the same as the second set of two rotations. 
While these last two rotations are technically called complex 
rotations, they form systems which are really simpler than the 
two-rotation scheme, and we generally use rotations of this type 
in planning cropping systems for dairy farms. 

"This type of rotation is exceedingly elastic. It not only per- 
mits each crop to be grown in exactly the proportion needed, but 
it can be varied in many ways by substituting other crops for 
those shown in the outlines above. For instance, in the first of 
these complex rotations, instead of plowing up the whole 40 acres 
of timothy and clover, we may leave 5 acres to take the place 
of the peas and oats in the first year. This 5 acres may remain 
down indefinitely, as long as the yield is satisfactory, and when 
necessary it may be plowed up and sown to peas and oats, to be 
followed by timothy and clover again without losing a crop of 
hay. 



CROPPING SYSTEMS POR STOCK PARMS 28l 

"Again, we may sow 10 acres of timothy and clover in the 
corn-field of year 1 to take the place of the 10 acres of peas and 
oats in year 2. Similar modifications may be made in the second 
complex rotation. This is exactly the type of cropping- system 
that has been developed by the shrewd New England dairy 
farmer whose small holdings will not permit him to grow a 
fixed, inelastic rotation that does not produce the crops in the 
proportion in which he wants them. Such a system enables the 
farmer to keep a maximum herd on his farm. 

"It is, of course, recognized that variations in yield from 
year to year will cause considerable variation in the quantity of 
each crop produced. This variation is especially likely to occur 
on poor soils ; it is much less on farms that have exceedingly 
rich soil. Nevertheless, the farmer is compelled to lay some 
kind of plan for meeting such variations in yield. Any scheme 
has value if it enables the farmer to approach more nearly to the 
ideal of his plans, and cropping systems like the complex rota- 
tions outlined will do this." 

How to Plan a Cropping System. — The following is taken from 
Spillman's article in the 1907 Year-book United States Dept. 
of Agriculture : 

"The method of managing hogs assumed in the following is 
adapted to the latitude of Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, 
Tennessee, Southern Missouri, and Northern Arkansas. It as- 
sumes that winter grain can be made available for pasture prac- 
tically throughout the winter. When pasture is not available, some 
clover hay cut from the summer pasture is fed. A small area of 
soy-bean hay may also be grown for winter feed for the hogs. 
Fixed rotations are necessary in this type of farming, because 
each field must be permanently fenced. Experience has shown 
that with good pasture 10 bushels of corn will, on the average, 
make a fall pig weigh about 1 70 pounds by July. The same quan- 
tity of corn, with good clover or alfalfa pasture, will carry a 
spring pig to 190 or 200 pounds by December or January. The 
pigs are supposed to be fed about all the corn they will eat up 
clean once a day — late in the afternoon. It will require about 25 
bushels of corn to feed a sow on pasture for a year. The sows are 
19 



282 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 



supposed to run on pasture with the pigs until the pigs are about 
ten weeks old. The sows are then removed to their own special 
pasture, where they are bred, and remain till the next litter of 
pigs is farrowed. Good winter wheat pasture will carry about 
6 pigs to the acre. Good clover pasture will carry 12 pigs to the 
acre till July, after which it will carry half as many. By sow- 
ing wheat and clover in corn in August we get our winter 
and summer pasture on the same land, so that 1 acre of pasture 
suffices for 6 fall and 6 spring pigs. 

"Estimating corn at 60 bushels per acre, 3 horses will re- 
quire 4^2 acres of corn. If hay yields V/2 tons per acre, the 
horses will require 5^2 acres of hay. If a sow produces on the 
average 14 pigs a year in two litters, then for each sow kept the 
requirements are as follows : 

Amount and Acreage of Corn and Acreage of Pasture Needed 
to Support One Sow with Pigs for a Year. 

Acres 

Feed for i Sow 

Corn, 25 bushels 0.42 

Special pasture o. 20 

Feed for 14 Pigs 

Corn, 140 bushels 2.33 

Pasture 1. 17 

Total 4. 12 

"Deducting 10 acres required to raise feed for the horses, we 
have on a 60-acre farm 50 acres to be devoted to hog raising. 
This divided by 4.12 gives 12. 11 ; i. e., we can keep 12 sows and 
raise 168 pigs. 

The approximate acreage of each crop would be as follows : 

Total Acreage of Each Crop Needed on a Hog Farm in a Region 
a Little South of Middle Latitude 



Crop 



For 3 
horses 



For 12 
sows 



For 168 
pigs 



Total 



Corn • • 
Hay . . . 

Pasture 



4-5 
5-5 



acres 
4-85 
2.40 



acres 
28.24 

14-13 



37-50 

5-5° 

16.53 



CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR STOCK FARMS 283 

Scheme of Rotation for a Hog Farm in a Region a Little 
South of Middle Latitude 

First rotation Second rotation 

First year ... 14 acres in corn and cow- First year . - 6 acres of corn 

peas 

Second year- 14 acres in corn, wheat 0/1 f 3.6 acres of corn 

and clover becond year . | 2 ^ acres of hay 

im ■ j i_ j. j f 1.6 acres of hay 

Third year.. 14 acres in wheat and Third year . . . J \ A acres G f sow 

c over ( pasture 

"By feeding a good deal of corn stover to horses, there ought 
to be hay enough to feed a cow on this farm. A fair crop of 
hay may be cut from the pig pasture about the first of July. This 
hay will contain a good deal of wheat straw, but will answer very 
well for pig feed in winter. The sow pasture will have to be 
fenced off each year with a temporary fence. 

"On account of the variation in yields, in some years there 
will be more corn than can be utilized, while in other years there 
will be less than is needed. This is true in all forms of live-stock 
farming. Some men meet this difficulty by keeping fewer ani- 
mals than the farm would support with average yields, and thus 
in good years have some crops for sale. Others meet it by 
changing the number of animals from year to year to suit condi- 
tions. Still others keep a maximum number of animals and buy 
feed when needed. As before stated, everyone must be his own 
judge in matters of this kind. 

"In the system of hog management outlined it is clear that in 
a section where corn can be bought at a price that permits it to 
be fed to hogs with a profit, the limit to the number of hogs that 
can be kept on the farm is the area of pasture that can be pro- 
vided. With a winter cereal and clover furnishing this pasture, 
it would be possible to keep half the land in pasture by growing 
a two-year rotation of corn followed by wheat and clover, these 
being sown together in August in the corn. 

"To ascertain the number of hogs 60 acres may be made to 
support under this last rotation, we deduct the 10 acres required 
to raise feed for the horses and divide the remaining 50 acres by 
a divisor obtained as follows : 



284 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK EEEDS AND FEEDING 

Acreage for One Sow and Pigs 

Acres 

Special pasture for 1 sow o. ?o 

Regular pasture for 14 pigs 1 . 1 7 

Corn in rotation with pasture - • 1. 17 

Total 2.54 

"For each sow and her two litters of pigs there is therefore 
required 2.54 acres. Dividing 50 by this we get 19.7. Retain- 
ing the fraction of this number as a factor of safety, the area of 
the special pasture for the sows is 4 acres. The area of wheat 
and clover pasture is 23, and the area of corn 23 acres. 

"If increasing the area of pasture and buying corn to feed the 
hogs on this pasture is more profitable than raising the corn, it 
would also be more profitable to buy feed for the horses. If this 
is done, to find the number of sows that can be kept we divide 
60 acres by 2.54, the result being 23.6. This gives the area of 
special pasture for the sows as 4.72 acres, leaving 55.28 acres to 
divide into two fields of 27.64 acres each for the rotation. 

"Twenty-three sows would produce 322 pigs annually. The 
amount of corn and hay that must be bought under this system, 
assuming that the corn raised yields 60 bushels per acre, would 
be : Hay for 3 horses, Sy 2 tons ; corn for three horses, 270 
bushels ; for 23 sows and 322 pigs, in addition to corn raised, 
2,138 bushels. 

"In the system of hog farming just outlined difficulty some- 
times arises from the fact that when wheat begins to shoot up in 
the spring it has a deleterious effect on the intestinal canal of 
the hog. If trouble of this kind is experienced, rye may be 
substituted for wheat. Along the extreme southern edge of 
the belt to which this type of farming is adapted winter oats may 
be used, and these are better than either wheat or rye for hog 
pasture." 

Cropping System for Illinois Hog Farm. — According to Farm- 
ers' Bui. 2~/2, the following cropping system has been used on 
a hog farm in Illinois with good success for 10 years : 



CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR STOCK FARMS 285 

First year, corn, 4/5 and soy bean 1/5 
Second year, corn 
Third year, oats 
Fourth year, clover 

Four equal fields of 20 acres each were used in this rotation. 
The soy beans were harvested and used as hay for winter feed- 
ing; the clover was pastured; the oats were used for feed- 
ing the hogs and work horses ; and the corn stover, sheaf oats or 
oat straw were also used for feeding. A little hay was pur- 
chased. Besides the 80 acres used in the rotation, 10 acres were 
in blue grass, 31 acres in timber and 10 acres were used for the 
orchard, garden, barn lot and yards, making a total for the farm 
of 131 acres. 

Five horses, two cows, fifteen Duroc-Jersey brood sows which 
averaged eight pigs to the litter, and 120 yearling hogs were 
kept. The yearling hogs were pastured on 12 acres of the 
clover and grain fed, at the rate of 2^2 to 4 lbs. a day depending 
upon the pasture, during the summer and were sent to market 
about August 1-10 weighing 325-350 lbs. 

The sows and young pigs were put on 8 acres of clover and 
turned on the remaining 12 acres when the yearling hogs were 
marketed. The sows and pigs were grain fed and by fall the 
pigs weighed about 100-125 lbs. 

In the winter the pigs were fed 5 lbs. of the following mix- 
ture: 

3^ pounds corn 
%" pound shorts 
% pound oil meal 

Soy bean hay was also fed. By spring these pigs weighed 
200-225 lbs. 

The sows were fed clover hay, enough of which was cut from 
the pasture for this purpose, and 4 lbs. of grain, consisting of 
ground rye or bran, oil meal, shorts, and corn. 

The owner of this hog farm says : "We think now we shall 
change our rotation and have one division in alfalfa, running a 
rotation of corn, corn, clover on three fields ; or we may use soy 
beans and omit the clover." 



286 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Cropping Systems for New England Dairy Farms. — According 
to Dodge in Farmers' Bui. 337. 

"New England is preeminently a section of small farms, due 
largely to the generally broken character of the country, the 
farming land being located in small areas scattered among the 
hills. Since the farms are small, some type of intensive farm- 
ing must be followed to make them profitable. Since the land 
has already been tilled longer than good land will bear an ex- 
ploitive system of farming, some type of live-stock farming is 
a necessity on most farms. As the most intensive form of stock 
farming is dairying, this latter industry is naturally the leading 
one on New England farms. Dairying, in the main, has been a 
profitable business in New England, but in recent years condi- 
tions have changed, and the outlook is not so satisfactory as it 
has been at various times in the past. 

"Some of the difficulties which are at present most evident 
are the high prices of concentrated feeds and of labor. Some 
sections of New England, furthermore, feel the pressure of 
unsatisfactory market conditions, especially those sections which 
ship milk to the large cities, where the farmers are offered a 
price for their milk on which they can hardly make a profit. 

"Outside of the milk-shipping sections the difficulties men- 
tioned do not appear, on careful observation, to be the most 
fundamental, although they are the most obvious. Taking the 
Northeastern States of the Union as a whole, owing to climate 
and topography the land is in general adapted to the growth of 
grass and trees. The fact that grass is so much at home in those 
States has led to a serious fault in New England dairy farming, 
namely, the mismanagement of grass lands. This consists in 
the main of a lack of proper treatment for permanent grass lands 
and of suitable rotations for other land, as well as the use for 
grass growing of land which does not give profitable returns 
from grass and which should rightfully be devoted to tree 
growth, either as woodland or orchards. Another frequent and 
wide-spread fault is the habit of cutting the hay crop entirely 
too late in the season, which of itself shortens the life of the 
meadow and results in an inferior quality of hay for dairy feed- 



CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR STOCK FARMS 



287 



"Closely associated with poor management of grass lands is 
the failure to utilize other crops available for this section, es- 
pecially corn. In southern New England there is little difficulty 
in growing good silage corn, but as one travels northward there 
is evidence of a lack of suitable varieties of corn for silage. This 
difficulty is not insuperable. There are varieties of corn that 
can be grown for silage in all but the most northern counties in 
New England. What is most needed is that sufficient attention 
be given to the selection of seed in order to develop strains of 
corn fitted to the requirements of the different sections. 

"Some of the best dairy farms of the country are to be found 
in New England. They are scattered here and there all over the 
New England States. A careful study has been made of the 
cropping systems on a large number of these farms." The re- 
sults of this study are tabulated in the following table. 

The following table shows the acreage, live-stock and seed 
required on several New England dairy farms : x 

TABLE I. — Acreage of New England Farms, and Number of 
Live-Stock on Each 



Farm 






Tilled 
land 


Pas- 
ture 


Number of 
cattle 


Tillable: 
land per' 
animal 2 


Pasture 




Cows 


Young 
stock 


animal 


Jones 

Sanborn . . 
Noyes .... 

Smith 

Chittemlcn 

Davis 

Holt 

Sadd 

Wilson .... 

Ames 

Avery 


Silage 
Silage 
Silage 
Silage 
Silage 
Silage 
Silage 
Silage 
Silage 
No silage 
No silage 


Grain pur'd 
Grain pur'd 
Grain pur'd 
Grain pur'd 
Grain pur'd 
Grain pur'd 
Grain pur'd 
Grain pur'd 
Grain rais'd 
Grain pur'd 
Grain pur'd 


acres 

40 

4 200 

18 

75 

175 

28 

74 
80 

65 
16 
18 


acres 

40 
225 
I50 

75 
100 

36 
40 

60 

40 


25 

140 

II 

55 
no 

25 

70 

45 
35 
11 
20 


15 
IOO 

3 
25 
25 
15 
25 

12 

3 


acres 

3 1.09 
I.05 

°-95 
1..10 
°i.4o 
0.83 
0.89 
1.77 
1.56 
1.23 
0.90 


acres 

1. OO 

0.9 

( 5 ) 

0.935 

0.7 

O.92 

0.4 

( 7 ) 
1.28 

2.S5 



1 Farmers' Bui. 337. 

2 On most of these farms 2 horses are kept for each iS or 20 cattle. The horses do not 
use any pasture, but must be counted in connection with the crops raised. In reckoning 
tillable land or pasture per animal, 2 young cattle or 5 sheep are considered the equivalent 
of 1 cow. 

3 In reckoning tillable land per cow only that used for raising feed is counted. 

4 Figures on the Sanborn farm refer only to the part used to supply dai^ feeds. 

5 On the Noyes farm 32 sheep are kept in addition to the cattle, and so the surplus 
pasture is partly utilized. 

Considerable hay is sold annually from the Chittenden farm. 

7 There is no pasture on the Sadd farm. Cows are stall fed the year around. 



288 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

TABLE II.— Acreage of the Several Crops on New England 
Farms, and Percentage of Land in Each Crop 



Farm 



Tilled 
land 



Approximate number of 
acres 1 in — 



Other 
cereals 2 



Grass 

and 

clover 



Tillable land 





In other 




cereals J 


per cent 


per cent. 


SO- 


25- 


25- 


50. 


2 5- 


25- 


30. 


30. 


32. 


IO. 


21-5 


7-5 


34- 


25. 


37-5 





25- 


25- 





25- 


11. 


"~ 



In grass 
and clo- 
ver hay 



Jones 

Sanborn . . 
Noyes 

Smith 

Chittenden 

Davis 

Holt 

Sadd 

Wilson . . . 

Ames 

Avery .... 



40 

200 

18 

75 

175 

28 

74 
80 

65 
16 
iS 



12 

50 
4-5 
22 

58 
6 

25 
30 
16 



10 
100 

4-5 
22 

17 

2 

20 

5 i6 



14 
4 i5o 

9 

3i 

100 

20 

29 
50 
32 
11 
16 



percent. 



TABLE III.— Quantity of Seed Required and Dates of Planting 
and Harvesting for the Latitude of Concord, N. H. 7 



Crop 



Quantity of 
seed per acre 



Date of planting 



Date when fit 
for soiling 



Date when 

fit for silage 

or hay 



Corn 

Oats 

Peas J- mixed 

Barley .... 

Barley- ... 

Winter rye 

Winter wheat) • ■, 
iTT- 4 at.)' mixed 

Winter vetch > 

Japanese millet . 

Hungarian millet 

Clover 



12 quarts 
1 bushel . 
1 bushel • 
\Yz bush- 
3 bushels 
3 bushels 
f 2 bushels 
\ Yz bushel 
30 pounds 
30 pounds 

12 pounds- 



May 18-25 

) April 25 
to 

J May 10. • 
July 1. •• 
Sept. 1-20 

• Sept. 1-20 

June 1-30 
June 1-30 

\ April 10-30 
I August 1-25 



August 10 
July 5 . . . - 



Sept. 10 
July 25 



September 1 Sept. 20. 
May 20 June 10 

July 1-5 

Aug. 1-30 
Aug. 1-30 



June 10 

July 5-30 ... 
July 20 to 
August 20 

• June 15... June 25-30 



1 These figures are only approximate, for the acreages vary slightly from year to year. 
- Includes either Japanese or Hungarian millet on a few farms. 

3 On the Jones and the Ames farms, respectively, a small area out of the tilled land is 
used for potatoes. 

4 Includes 50 acres of permanent pasture. 

6 On all except the Wilson farm other cereal crops than corn are used for hay or silage. 
On the Wilson farm they are cut for grain. 

c All corn raised is for silage except on the Avery farm, where corn is raised for grain, 
and figures there apply only to winter feeding. 

7 The dates given are for a normal season. For points to the north or south of 
Concord or in higher altitudes some allowance needs to be made, but the differences will 
be rather slight. 



CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR STOCK FARMS 



289 



"The essentials of the New England dairyman, according to 
Farmers' Bui. 337, in growing feed for his cows appear to 
be the use of a short rotation wherever possible ; all the clover 




Fig. 24— Sorghum; a succulent feed. 

hay and corn silage that can be grown ; liming the land for clover 
if need be; better management, especially in the use of manure, 
of land which is not fit for short rotations ; and the utilizing of 
the various other crops that have been mentioned to fill the gaps 



2QO ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

with succulent feed or add in quantity and quality to the ordi- 
nary hay crop." 

Cropping System for Dairy Farm in Michigan. — Farmers' Bui. 
280, gives a description of a dairy farm in Michigan run on 
the tenant basis which has been successful. This farm is of 120 
acres, and 60 cows, 43 calves and yearlings, 2 bulls and 9 horses 
were on the place at the time of these observations. All the 
roughage was grown on the farm, and the oil meal, bran and 
cotton-seed meal were purchased. 



System of Cropping for 1905, 1906 and 1907 1 



Field 
number 


Acreage 


Crop, 1905 


Crop, 1906 


Crop, 1907 




17 

24 

32 

13 

IO 

IO 






Corn 




Corn, sowed to rye 

( 13 acres corn . . . 
1 18 acres oats, 
\ seeded to alfalfa 
! 1 acre rye, seeded 

{ to alfalfa 

Alfalfa 


Rye, to be cut for 
hay and followed 
by corn 
13 acres corn 

1 


3 

4 

5 




Oats, cut for hay; 

seeded to alfalfa. 
Oats, cut for grain; 

seeded to rye • • - 

Alfalfa 


} 19 acres alfalfa 

I 

Alfalfa 


Rye, followed by 
corn, seeded to 


Rye, to be cut for 
hay and seeded to 
alfalfa 


6 


Alfalfa 


Alfalfa 











In addition there was a pasture of 2^ acres, which was never 
plowed. 

Enough manure was produced on this farm to cover the whole 
form with 6-8 tons per acre. No commercial fertilizer was 
used. 

The corn for silage was a large ensilage corn planted on well 
manured land. The corn stubble was seeded with rye which 
proved to be very successful as a hay crop. From 10 acres, 4 
big loads of rye hay and 15 tons of silage to the acre were har- 
vested for 1906. 

1 Farmers' Bui. 280. 



CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR STOCK FARMS 2CjI 

Cropping Systems with Alfalfa. — Wing 1 suggests the following 
rotations using alfalfa in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois : 

First year, corn 

Second year, corn 

Third year, alfalfa and barley 

Fourth year, alfalfa 

Fifth year, alfalfa 

Sixth year, alfalfa 

The alfalfa may be sown in the fall on barley stubble or in 
the spring with barley as a nurse crop. Permanent pasture is 
kept for cows, work horses, and pigs. 

A shorter rotation is suggested by the same authority as fol- 
lows : 

First year, corn 
Second year, wheat 
Third year, alfalfa 
Fonrth year, alfalfa 

The alfalfa may be sown on the plowed wheat stubble. Per- 
manent pasture is provided for live-stock. 

Cropping Systems for North Central States. — The following 
cropping system is popular in these states : 

First year, corn 

Second year, oats 

Third year, clover and timothy 

Fourth year, clover and timothy 

It is possible to plant Irish potatoes or oats after the corn. 
Rye may be planted in the fall after the corn, oats or potatoes 
and this crop will be off by July ist. The clover may be sowed 
at the last snowfall or early in the spring, and a crop of hay 
should be secured from this by early fall. The mammoth red 
clover is popular. 

Cropping Systems for the Gulf States. — In the Gulf states it is 
possible to raise many crops during the summer and winter, and 
so the stock farmer is not always limited in his choice of crops. 
The following are a few crops that are successful for this region : 

1 Alfalfa in America. 



292 ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON STOCK FEEDS AND FEEDING 

Summer Winter 

Corn and cowpeas Beets, turnips or carrots 

Sorghum Oats 

Sweet potatoes Red or crimson clover 

Lespedeza (Japan clover) Italian rye grass 

Peanuts Bur clover 

Alfalfa Irish potatoes 
Bermuda 

In some sections of the Gulf States it is too cold in the winter 
for mangels, and carrots or turnips may be substituted, but man- 
gels are preferred. 

Alluvial lands well seeded in alfalfa may remain until the 
crop is unprofitable. On certain lands this crop may last for 
years. Lespedeza and Bermuda are excellent for pasture or for 
hay and will usually reseed themselves. Besides these, there 
are innumerable grasses, legumes and other forage crops that 
may be successfully grown.. 

Suggestion : — Figure cropping systems for stock farms in 
your locality. The yearly requirements for live-stock may be 
easily ascertained by computing rations from the feeds you can 
raise. It may be necessary to purchase small amounts of protein 
concentrates for some classes of live-stock, but most and some- 
times all of the feed may be raised at home. 



THE STATE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS. 



Alabama — 

College Station ; Auburn. 

Canebrake Station ; Uniontown. 

Tuskegee, Tuskegee. 
Arizona — Tucson. 
Arkansas — Fayetteville. 
California — Berkeley. 
Colorado — Fort Collins. 
Connecticut — 

State Station, New Haven. 

Storrs Station, Storrs. 
Delaware — Newark. 
Florida — Gainesville. 
Georgia — Experiment. 
Idahoi — Moscow. 
Illinois — Urbana. 
Indiana — Lafayette. 
Iowa — Ames. 
Kansas — Manhattan. 
Kentucky — Lexington. 
Louisiana — 

State Station, Baton Rouge. 

Sugar Station, Audubon Park, 
N. O. 

North La. Station, Calhoun. 

Rice Station, Crowley. 
Maine — Orono. 
Maryland — College Park. 
Massachusetts — Amherst. 
Michigan — East Lansing. 
Minnesota — St. Anthony Park, 

St. Paul. 
Mississippi — Agricultural College. 



Missouri — 

College Station ; Columbia. 

Fruit Station ; Mountain Grove. 
Montana — Bozeman. 
Nebraska — Lincoln. 
Nevada — Reno. 
New Hampshire — Durham. 
New Jersey — New Brunswick. 
New Mexico — Agricultural College. 
New York — 

State Station ; Geneva. 

Cornell Station ; Ithaca. 
North Carolina — 

College Station; West Raleigh. 

State Station, Raleigh. 
North Dakota — Agricultural College. 
Ohio — Wooster. 
Oklahoma — Stillwater. 
Oregon — Corvallis. 
Pennsylvania — State College. 
Rhode Island — Kingston. 
South Carolina — Clemson College. 
South Dakota — Brookings. 
Tennessee — Knoxville. 
Texas — College Station. 
Utah — Logan. 
Vermont — Burlington. 
Virginia — Blacksburg. 
Washington — Pullman. 
West Virginia — Morgantown. 
Wisconsin — Madison. 
Wyoming — Laramie. 



INDEX. 



Absorption, 43. 

Adulterants in feeds, hi; composi- 
tion of, 112. 

Agricultural Experiment Stations, 
293- 

Albuminoids, 22, 24. 

Alfalfa, for calves, 247; for dairy 
cows, 194; for ewes, 251; for 
fattening cattle, 211 ; for horses, 
218; for poultry, 259; for sheep, 
226; for swine, 242; cropping 
systems with, 291 ; meal, 103 ; 
pasture for sheep, 226; pasture 
for swine, 244. 

Amides, 22. 

Amylopsin, 37, 43. 

Animals, action of plant on, 2 ; ash 
in, 18, 32; carbohydrates in, 27; 
composition of, section on, 31 ; 
composition of ash of, 20; com- 
position of dry matter of, 7, 31 ; 
distribution of mineral elements 
in, 8 ; fats in, 34 ; food of, 1 ; pro- 
tein in, 34; statistics on, IV; 
water in, 12, 32. 

Apples for poultry, 259. 

Ash, acids and bases of, 13 ; defini- 
tion and composition of, 13 ; dis- 
tribution of in plants, 15; ex- 
amples of 13; functions of, 56; 
in animals, 18 ; in plants, 13 ; 
salts of, 13 ; variation of in plant 
substances, 14. 

Assimilation, 44; definition of, 36. 

Barley, 98; for dairy cows, 190; for 
fattening cattle, 212; for horses, 
216; for lambs, 229; for poultry, 
257 ; for swine, 238 ; pasture for 
swine, 244. 



Bedding for fattening cattle, 213 ; for 
horses, 219; for sheep, 227; for 
swine, 244. 

Beet pulp, 86; for dairy cows, 192; 
for fattening cattle, 210; for 
sheep, 231. 

Beets for dairy cows, 210. 

Bermuda grass for dairy cows, 193. 

Bile, 37. 

Blood, arterial and venous, 45 ; com- 
position of, 46; functions of, 45; 
physical characters of, 45 ; pure 
and impure, 47; salts of, 45. 

Bolus, 39. 

Bone, composition of, 91 ; fresh cut 
and dry cracked for poultry, 258, 
259; meal, 88. 

Brewers' grains, 79, 80; for dairy 
cows, 191; for horses, 217; for 
poultry, 267. 

Buckwheat by-products for dairy 
cows, 190; for poultry, 257. 

Buttermilk, 88; for swine, 241. 

By-products, alcoholic, 79 ; animal 
and fish, 87 ; breakfast food, 80 
glucose and starch, 82; milk, 88 
milling, 83 ; packing house, 88 
sugar, 85; value of, 74; vegetable 
oil, 74. 

Cabbage for poultry, 259. 

Calf, care of, 249 ; feeding of beef, 

246; feeding of dairy, 248; feed 

after weaning, 247; weaning, 248. 
Calcium, 4, 18. 
Calorie, definition of, 61. 
Calorimeter, 63. 
Canada blue grass for dairy cows, 

193- 
Canada field pea for dairy cows, 194; 

for swine, 239. 



296 



INDEX 



Carbohydrates, definition of, 26; ex- 
amples of, 26; functions of, 57; 
in animals, 27. 

Carbon, 3. 

Carbonic acid, 3, 36. 

Carrots for dairy cows, 201. 

Cellulose, 28. 

Charcoal for poultry, 260. 

Chicks, rations for, 263. 

Chlorine, 5. 

Chyle, 42. 

Chylification, 42. 

Chyme, 39. 

Chymification, 39. 

Circulation, 43. 

Clover for calves, 249 ; for dairy 
cows, 194; for ewes, 251; for 
fattening cattle, 211; for horses, 
217; for poultry, 259; for sheep, 
230 ; for swine, 242 ; meal, 103. 

Clover pasture for sheep, 226 ; for 
swine, 244. 

Cold pressed cake, 77, 78. 

Colt, feeding of, 249; food after 
weaning, 250 ; grain for, 250. 

Commercial feeds, section on, 74, 83 ; 
classes of, section on, 90, 98 ; 
definition of, 74; standards for, 
91 ; sources of, 74. 

Composition, necessity of, 124. 

Concentrates, amounts to feed, 147. 

Condimental feeds and condition 
powders, 118. 

Conversion factors, 118. 

Corn for dairy cows, 189 ; for ewes, 
251 ; for fattening cattle, 207 ; for 
horses, 216; for lambs, 229; for 
poultry, 256 ; for swine, 236. 

Corn and cob meal for dairy cows, 
189; for fattening cattle, 209; 
for horses, 216. 

Corn and cob meal for dairy cows, 
189; for fattening cattle, 209; 
for horses, 216. 

Corn and oat feeds, 80, 81, 91. 



Corn bran, 81 ; for dairy cows, 189. 

Corn chops, 98. 

Corn fodder for dairy cows, 193 ; for 

horses, 218. 
Corn germ meal, 82; for dairy cows, 

189. 
Corn, husked for fattening cattle, 

209. 
Corn leaves for sheep, 230. 
Corn meal for calves, 248 ; for colts, 

250; for dairy cows, 189; for 

ewes, 251 : for fattening cattle, 

209; for pigs, 253 ; for swine, 236. 
Corn, shelled for calves, 247. 
Corn, snapped for fattening cattle, 

208. 
Corn stover for calves, 249 ; for colts, 

250 ; for fattening cattle, 209 ; for 

horses, 218. 
Corpuscles, 45. 
Cotton products, composition of, 77 ; 

impotance of, 75. 
Cotton-seed, for dairy cows, 191 ; for 

fattening cattle, 210; yield of 

products from, 76. 
Cotton-seed feed, 93. 
Cotton-seed hulls, 75, 76, 77 ; for 

dairy cows, 191 ; for horses, 219 ; 

for sheep, 230. 
Cotton-seed meal, 76, 77 ; chemical 

classification of, 92 ; commercial 

classification of, 92 ; composition 

of, 77, 93 ; for dairy cows, 191 

for fattening cattle, 208, 210 

for horses, 216; for poultry, 258 

for sheep, 230 ; for swine, 239. 
Cowpea for calves, 247 ; for dairy 

cows, 194; for sheep, 230. 
Cowpea pasture for cattle, 211; for 

swine, 244. 
Crab grass for dairy cows, 193. 
Cropping systems for stock farms, 

section on, 278; how to plan, 281. 



INDEX 



297 



Dairy cows, feed and care of, sec- 
tion on, 188; influence of age on, 

54- 

Dairy farm, cropping systems for, 
286, 290. 

Defecation, 44. 

Deglutition, 39. 

Digestibility, coefficients of, 122; con- 
ditions governing, section on, 51 ; 
of feeds, 121 ; necessity of, 124. 

Digestion, definition of, 36; physiol- 
ogy of, section on, 36 ; intestinal, 
42. 

Distillers' grains, 80 ; for dairy cows, 
191. 

Dried blood, 88; for swine, 241. 

Drinking, 38. 

Dry ground fish, 89. 

Dry matter and digestible nutrients 
in feed-stuffs, section on, 157; 
in animals, 31 ; in plants, 9. 

Emmer, 230. 

Energy, measurement of, 61 ; poten- 
tial and kinetic, 61 ; sources and 
uses of, 60 ; uses of compounds 
that furnish, 60; utilization of, 
62. 

Energy values, computation of ra- 
tions according to, section on, 
179. 

Exercise for colts, 250 ; for dairy 
cows, 203 ; for pigs, 254 ; for 
poultry, 260; for swine, 244. 

Farm crops, value of, 269. 

Farm manure, amounts voided by 
farm animals, 270 ; composition 
of, 270; effects of, 269; lasting 
qualities of, 269; value of, 269, 
271. 

Eats, absorption o>f, 43 ; definition 
of, 28; examples of, 56; func- 
tions of, 57; in animals, 29; in 
plant substances, 29. 
Fattening, nature of gain in, 34. 



Fattening cattle, feed and care of, 
section on, 207; for fall market, 
213. 

Feed meal, 82. 

Feed mixtures, 101. 

Feed requirements, 181. 

Feeds, adulteration of, in ; classes 
of, 91, 117; composition of, 121; 
digestibility of, 121 ; for dairy 
cows, 188; how to buy, 116; low 
grade, no; production of in the 
United States, 71 ; table of com- 
position and digestibility, 125. 

Feed-stuff laws, 105 ; Federal law, 
no; importance of, 105; require- 
ments of, 105; uniform law, 106; 
and feed adulterants, section on, 
105. 

Feed-stuffs, as a source of energy, 
section on, 60; a few remarks 
about, section on, 113; compo- 
sition and digestibility of, sec- 
tion on, 121 ; tentative definitions 
of, 107; valuation of, 113; weight 
and measure of, 151. 

Feeding standards, section on, 136; 
guides, 150; table of, 138. 

Ferments, 36, 37. 

Fertilizer constituents in feeds, 274. 

Fiber, definition of, 27; in plant sub- 
stances, 28. 

Fish refuse, 89. 

Flax feed and bran, 78. 

Flaxseed for poultry, 257. 

Flaxseed meal for calves, 248. 

Fluorine, 5. 

Food, chemical composition of, 51 ; 
circulation of digested, 45 ; pala- 
tability of, 51 ; quantity of, 51. 

Forage crops, 65; curing of, 194; 
husbanding of, 66; losses in field 
curing of, 67 ; time to harvest, 
68. 

Gastric juice, 2>7- 

Gelatinoids, 22, 24. 



>9S 



INDKX 



Gluten, 22. 

Gluten feed and meal, 82 ; for calves, 
247 ; for dairy cows, 189 ; for 
ewes, 251 ; for fattening cattle, 
208 ; for poultry, 258 ; for sheep, 
230. 

Glycogen, 43. 

Glycocholic acid, 37. 

Grain on grass for fattening cattle, 
212. 

Grains, 66. 

Grasses, 66 ; for poultry, 259 ; hays 
of for calves, 249; for dairy 
cows, 193 ; for ewes, 251 ; for 
fattening cattle, 211; for horses, 
218; for sheep, 231. 

Grit for poultry, 260. 

Haemoglobin, 45. 

Heart, 47 ; compartments of, 47. 

Heats of combustion, 62. 

Hog farm, cropping systems for, 
284. 

Hominy meal, 82 ; for dairy cows, 
189. 

Horses, feed and care of, section 
on, 215; rations for, 223; require- 
ments for, 215; system in feed- 
ing, 220 ; wintering working, 220. 

Hydrochloric acid, 37. 

Hydrogen, 2. 

Hygroscopic water, 9. 

Insalivation, 38. 

Intestinal digestion, 42. 

Intestinal juice, 37. 

Intestines, length of, 40. 

Irish potatoes for dairy cows, 201. 

Iron, 5. 

Italian rye grass for dairy cows, 193. 

Japan clover, see lespedeza. 

Kafir corn for fattening cattle, 211; 
for horses, 216; for poultry, 257; 
for swine, 238. 

Kentucky blue grass for dairy cows, 

193- 
Kidneys, 48. 



Kindness, 203. 

Lambs, fattening winter, 227 ; feed- 
ing of, 250; grain for, 251; hot- 
house, 228. 

Legumes for dairy cows, 194 ; for 
fattening cattle, 211; for horses, 
218; for silage, 195; methods of 
curing, 194. 

Legumin, 22. 

Leguminous plants, 65. 

Lespedeza for dairy cows, 194. 

Lettuce for poultry, 259. 

Lime, for poultry, 260 ; ratio to phos- 
phoric acid in feeds, 19. 

Linseed meal, 78, 79 ; for calves, 
247; for dairy cows, 191; for 
ewes, 251 ; for fattening cattle, 
210; for horses, 217; for poul- 
try, 258; for sheep, 230; for 
swine, 239. 

Liver, 49. 

Live-stock, better labor, 273 ; grow- 
ing of legumes for, 272 ; im- 
portance of raising, 269; market 
for cheap and coarse feed-stuffs, 

272 ; mixed husbandry profitable, 

273 ; reducing freight charges by 
keeping, 271 ; roots and tubers 
for, 273. 

Magnesium, 5. 

Malnutrition, 18. 

Mash for poultry, 260. 

Malt sprouts, 80; for dairy cows, 

191. 
Maltose, 38. 

Manganese, 5. 

Mangels for dairy cows, 201 ; for 

fattening cattle, 210. 
Mastication, 38. 
Meadow fescue grass for dairy cows, 

193- 
Meat and bone-meal, 88 ; for poultry, 

259. 
Meat scrap, 88 ; for poultry, 258. 



INDEX 



299 



Milch cows, standards for, section 

on, 173. 
Milk, by-products of, 88; composi- 
tion of, 20, 87, 88; for calves, 
248 ; for colts, 249. 
Millet hay for dairy cows, 193; for 

horses, 218. 
Millet seed for poultry, 257; for 

swine, 238. 
Molasses, beet, cane and sorghum, 
85, 86, 87; for dairy cows, 192; 
for fattening cattle, 211; for 
horses, 217; for swine, 241. 
Molasses feeds, 99; classes of, 100. 
Nitrogen, 3. 
Nitrogen free compounds, section on, 

26. 
Nitrogen free extract, 26, 27. 
Nutrients, table of digestible, 125. 
Nutrients and their functions, sec- 
tion on, 56 ; comparison of, 59 ; 
how they enter the blood, 47 ; 
summary of functions of, 58. 
Nutritive ratio, definition of, 124; 

terms of, 144. 
Oat feeds, 80, 81 ; fortified, 99. 
Oat hay for horses, 218. 
Oats for calves, 247 ; for colts, 250 ; 
for dairy cows, 191 ; for ewes, 
251; for fattening cattle, 211; 
for horses, 215; for lambs, 229; 
for pigs, 253; for poultry, 257; 
for sheep, 229 ; for swine, 239. 
Oats and barley mixed, 98. 
Oats and peas, and vetch, and peas 

and vetch for dairy cows, 193. 
Onions for poultry, 259. 
Orchard grass for dairy cows, 193. 
Organic acids, 26. 
Organic matter, definition of, 11. 
Oxy-haemoglobin, 45. 
Oxygen, 3. 

Oyster shells for poultry, 260. 
Palatability, 260. 
Pancreatic juice, 42., 



Pasture for dairy cows, 202 ; for 
fattening cattle, 212; for poul- 
try, 259; for sheep, 226; for 
swine, 244. 
Pea meal for dairy cows, 191. 
Peanut vine for dairy cows, 194. 
Peanuts for swine, 242. 
Peas for ewes, 251; for pigs, 253; 

for poultry, 257. 
Pepsin, 39. 

Peptones, 37, 39; absorption of, 43. 
Phosphoric acid, ratio to lime in 

plants, 19. 
Phosphorus, 4, 18. 
Physiological water, 9. 
Pig, feed for, 253. 

Plants, ash of young and mature, 
17 ; chemical elements needed by, 
2; composition of, 6, 11; distri- 
bution of ash in, 15; distribu- 
tion of mineral elements in, 7, 
15; dry matter of, 11; food of, 
1; variation of water in, 9, 10; 
water and dry matter in, 9, 10. 
Plasma, 45. 
Potassium, 4. 

Poultry, feed and care of, section 
on, 255 ; standards and rations 
for, section on, 261. 
Poultry feeds, 102 ; classes of, 103. 
Prairie grass for dairy cows, 193 ; 

for fattening cattle, 211. 
Prehension, 37. 
Proprietary feeds, 101. 
Proteids, 22, 43. 

Protein in plants and animals, sec- 
tion on, 22 ; compounds of, 22 ; 
examples of, 57 ; functions of, 57. 
Protein concentrates for fattening 

cattle, 208, 210; for sheep, 230. 
Provender, 99. 
Ptyalin, 37, 38. 

Rape and corn for sheep, 226. 
Rape pasture for sheep, 226 ; for 
swine, 244. 



300 



INDEX 



Rations, computing by energy re- 
quirements, 179; for animals 
weighing more or less than 1,000 
lbs., 144; for dairy cows, 203; for 
ewes, 251 ; for fattening cattle, 
186, 213; for horses, 185, 223; for 
poultry, 263 ; for sheep, 232 ; for 
swine, 245 ; how to balance, 142, 
184; how to improve and reduce 
the cost of, section on, 152; lay- 
ing, 266 ; narrow, wide and med- 
ium, 145, 146. 

Rebates on feeds, 113. 

Red dog flour, 83 ; for dairy cows, 
190. 

Red top hay for dairy cows, 193. 

Rennin, 37. 

Requirements, fattening, 141, 207; 
for dairy cows, 188; for horses, 
215; for milch cows, 175; for 
poultry, 255 ; for sheep, 225 ; for 
swine, 235 ; for young animals, 
246; growth, 139; maintenance, 
137; milk production, 140, 175; 
work, 140. 

Rescue grass for dairy cows, 193. 

Respiration, 47. 

Respiration apparatus or calorimeter, 

63. 

Rice for poultry, 257. 

Rice bran, 84, 85, 94. 

Rice by-products, 84, 85. 

Rice grits, 84, 85. 

Rice hulls, 84, 85. 

Rice meal, 84 ; for dairy cows, 190 ; 
for swine, 240. 

Rice polish, 84, 85, 94 ; for swine, 
240. 

Roots and tubers, 70 ; composition 
of, 71 ; for dairy cows, 201 ; for 
ewes, 251 ; for fattening cattle, 
210; for horses, 219; for mares, 
249 ; for poultry, 259 ; for sheep, 
231 ; for swine, 242. 



Rotation defined, 278 ; simple and 

complex, 279. 
Roughage, amount to feed, 147. 
Rumination, 41. 
Russian broom grass for dairy cows, 

193- 

Rutabagas for dairy cows, 201. 

Rye for poultry, 257 ; pasture for 
swine, 244. 

Rye meal for dairy cows, 190 ; for 
swine, 238. 

Saliva, 37, 38. 

Salt, absorption of, 43 ; for dairy 
cows, 202 ; for fattening cattle, 
213; for horses, 220; for poultry, 
260; for sheep, 227. 

Sheep, feed and care of, section on, 
225 ; as weed destroyers, 225 ; 
feeding period rate or gain, 231 ; 
feeding racks for, 227 ; pasture 
for, 226; rations for, 232; re- 
quirements for, 225 ; winter fat- 
tening quarters for, 227. 

Shelter for dairy cows, 202 ; for fat- 
tening cattle, 213. 

Shocked corn for fattening cattle, 
208; for sheep, 228. 

Silage, 68; composition of, 69; di- 
gestibility of, 70 ; for dairy cows, 
195; for ewes, 251; for fatten- 
ing cattle, 209; for horses, 218; 
for mares, 249 ; for poultry, 259 ; 
for sheep, 230 ; for swine, 243 ; 
losses in, 69 ; weight of, 196. 

Silicon, 5. 

Silo, 68; capacity of, 198; horizontal 
feeding area of, 199 ; size of, for 
herds, 200. 

Skim milk, 88; for calves, 248; for 
pigs, 253; for poultry, 259; for 
swine, 241. 

Skin, function of, 49. 

Snapped corn for fattening cattle, 
208. 

Sodium, 5. 



' INDEX 



30 1 



Soiling, 202. 

Sorghum hay for fattening cattle, 
211. 

Soy bean for dairy cows, 194; for 
fattening cattle, 211. 

Soy bean meal for swine, 238. 

Speltz, 230. 

Steapsin, 37, 43. 

Stock farms, cropping systems for, 
section .on, 278. 

Stock feeds, natural, section on, 65. 

Stomachal digestion, 39. 

Stomachs, capacities of, 40; descrip- 
tion of, 41. 

Stover, 70; composition of, 70; for 
calves, 249; for colts, 250; for 
ewes, 251 ; for fattening cattle, 
211. 

Straw, 70 ; composition of, 70 ; for 
colts, 250 ; for dairy cows, 194 ; 
for ewes, 251 ; for fattening cat- 
tle, 210; for horses, 219; for 
sheep, 231. 

Sugar, 26; absorption of, 43. 

Sugar by-products, 85. 

Sulphur, 5. 

Sunflower seeds for poultry, 257. 

Sweat, composition of, 50 ; kinds of, 
49- 

Sweet potatoes for dairy cows, 201. 

Swine, feed and care of, section on, 
235 ; cleanliness, 244 ; exercise 
for, 244 ; following cattle, 243 ; 
rations for, 245 ; requirements 
for, 235 ; wet and dry meal for, 
244. 

Tables, of composition and digesti- 
bility, 125 ; of composition of 
fowls and eggs, 256 ; of capaci- 
ties of silos, 198; of classes of 
commercial feeds, 91, 117; of 
conversion factors, 118; of dry 
matter and digestible nutrients, 
158; of energy values, 179; of 
feed requirements, 181 ; of feed- 



ing standards, 138; of fertilizer 
constituents in feed-stuffs, 274; 
of gain in young pigs, 253 ; of 
gain of swine, 236; of length 
of intestines and capacities of 
stomachs, 40; of size of silos 
for herds, 200; of standards for 
poultry, 262; of weight and meas- 
ure of feed-stuffs, 151 ; of weight 
of silage, 197. 

Tall oat grass for dairy cows, 193. 

Tankage, 88; for swine, 241. 

Taurocholic acid, 37. 

Teosinte for dairy cows, 193. 

Texas blue grass for dairy cows, 

193- 

Therm, definition of, 61. 

Timothy for dairy cows, 193 ; for 
fattening cattle, 211; for horses, 
217. 

Trypsin, 37, 43. 

Turnips for dairy cows, 201. 

Unit values for dairy cows, 201. 

Unit values of feeds, 113. 

Urine, composition of, 48. 

Valuation of feed-stuffs, 113. 

Vegetable gums, 26. 

Velvet grass for dairy cows, 193. 

Water, amounts used by plants, 9 ; 
for dairy cows, 202 ; for fatten- 
ing cattle, 213; for horses, 219; 
for sheep, 227; for swine, 244; 
kinds of in plants, 9; time to, 
55- 

Western rye grass for dairy cows, 
193- 

Wheat for dairy cows, 190; for fat- 
tening cattle, 211 ; for horses, 216; 
for lambs, 229 ; for poultry, 257 ; 
for swine, 237. 

Wheat admixture, 96, 97. 

Wheat and vetch for dairy cows, 
193- 



302 



INDEX 



Wheat bran, 83, 96 ; for calves, 247 ; 
for dairy cows, 190; for ewes, 
251 ; for fattening cattle, 210; for 
horses, 217; for poultry, 258; for 
sheep, 229 ; for swine, 237. 

Wheat by-products, 83 ; analyses of, 

83. 
Wheat flour, 83. 
Wheat middlings or shorts, 83, 96, 

-17- 
Wheat mixed feed, 83, 96. 



Wheat screenings, 83 ; for poultry, 
258; for sheep, 229; for swine, 

237- 
Wheat shorts for calves, 248 ; for 

ewes, 251; for pigs, 253; for 

poultry, 258. 
Wheat pasture for swine, 244. 
Whey, 88 ; for swine, 241. 
Young animals, feed and care of, 

section on, 246; requirements of, 

246. 



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